DUKE 

UNIVERSITY 

LIBRARY 


Gl{^t  0^5 

the  Estate  of 
Ashbel  G.  Brice 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 
Duke  University  Libraries 


https://archive.org/details/romanmedievalart01good 


THE  CHAUTAUQUA  LITERARY  AND  SCIEN- 
TIFIC CIRCLE. 

ffounScCi  in  I STS. 

This  volume  is  a part  of  the  course  of  home  reading  the 
essential  features  of  ivhieh  are: 

1.  A Definite  Course  covering  four  years,  and  including 

History,  Literature,  Art,  Science,  etc.  {A  reader  may 
enroll  for  only  one  year.) 

2.  Specified  Volumes  approved  by  the  counselors.  Many  of 

the  books  are  specially prepa.red  for  the  purpose. 

3.  Allotment  of  Time.  The  readnig  is  ajiportioned  by  the 

week  and  month. 

4.  A Monthly  Magazine,  The  Chautauqv.^x,  with  ad- 

ditional readings,  notes,  and  general  literature. 

5.  A Membership  Book,  containing  suggestions  for  reading, 

revien-  outlines,  and  other  aid. 

6.  Individual  readers,  no  matter  how  isolated,  may  have  all 

the  privileges. 

7.  Local  Circles  may  be  formed  by  three  or  more  members 

for  mutual  aid  and  encouragement. 

8.  The  time  required  is  from  forty  minutes  to  an  hour  a day 

for  nine  months. 

9.  Certificates  are  granted  at  the  end  of  four  years  to  all 

who  complete  the  course. 

10.  Advanced  courses,  for  continued  reading  in  special 
lines — History,  Literature,  etc. 
ri.  Pedagogical  course /or  secular  teachers. 

12.  Young  Peoples’  Reading  Course  to  .stimulate  the  reading  of 
good  literexture  by  the  young. 

For  all  information  concerning  the  C.  L.  S.  C.  address 

John  H.  Vincent,  Drawer  194,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

THE  REQUIRED  LITERATURE  FOR  1893-4. 


Rome  axi)  the  M.\kixg.of  AIoderx  Europe. 

James  R.  Joy 61. CIO 

Rojr.\x  .AXD  AIedievae  Art  (illustrated).  TV.  H. 

Goodyear 1.00 

OuTLiXEs  OF  EcoxoMirs.  Richard  T.  Ely  . 1.00 

Classic  Latix  Course  ix  ExctLish.  TV.'  C.  TVil- 

kiuson 1.00 

Song  .c.xd  LEcrEXD  from  the  Middle  Acies. 

Edited  by  TV.  I).  McClintock .-50 

SciEXCE  AXD  Pr.^yer.  By  TVilliam  TV.  ITinsley  .50 

The  Chautauqu.cx  (12  numbers,  illustrated)  . 2.CK) 


STONI'MI  lONCil*:,  SAMSIiUKV  I’hAlN. 


Chautauqua  IReahlng  Circle  Xtterature. 


ROMAN 

AND 

MEDIEVAL  ART 


BY 


W.  H.  GOODYEAR,  M.A. 

Author  of  “Ancient  and  Modern  History,''  “A  History  of  Art,’’  “ The 
Grammar  of  the  Lotus,”  etc.,  etc. 


FLOOD  AND  VINCENT 
(3i:f)autauqua-<rEntur)n  pcEjf# 

MEADVILLE  PENNA 
150  FIFTH  AVE.  NEW  YORK 

1893 


Copyright,  1S93, 

By  Flood  it  Vixcext. 


The  Chautauqiia-Ccntuvt/  Press,  Meadville,  Pa.,  U.  S.  ,4. 
Electrotyped,  Printed,  and  Bound  by  Flood  ct  Vincent. 


CONTENTS. 


PAKT  I.— KOMAN  AET. 

Cfiapter.  Page* 

I.  The  Prehistoric  AcxE  ....  9 

TI.  EOH.A.X  History  axd  Eo:\ian  Art  . 12 

HI.  The  Earey  Eohax  Art  . . .29 

TV.  The  Deveeopmext  of  the  Empire  . 34 

V.  General  Eeview  of  the  Eoman  Art  44 
YI.  Eoman  Architecture  and  Painting  . 49 

Yir.  Eoman  Decorative  Art  and  Sculpture  0.5 
YIII.  The  Eoman  Decadence  ...  74 

TX.  Sfimmarv 87 

PAET  II.— MEDIEVAL  AET. 

I.  The  Period  of  the  German  Invasions  9.3 

II.  The  Byzantine  Art  ....  100 

III.  Early  Christian  Architecture  . 112 

IV.  The  Dome  Churches  . . . .122 

V.  Byzantinp:  Details  and  Ornamental 

System 125 

VI.  Mohammedan  Art  ....  128 


CONTEXTS. 


VII.  The  Eobianesque  Period  . . . 1.34 

VIII.  Eomanesque  Architecture  . . 143 

IX.  The  Gothic  Period  ....  1.5S 

X.  Gothic  Architecture  . . .170 

XI.  XoRTHERN  Gothic  Sculpture  and 

Painting 195 

XII.  The  Secular  and  Italian  Gothic  . 207 

XIII.  Italian  Gothic  Painting  . . . 215 

XIV.  Italian  Gothic  Sculpture  . . 234 

Index 243 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Stonehenge,  Salisbury  Plain Frontispiece. 

Figure.  Page 

The  Ruins  of  the  Roman  Forum Facing-  12 

1.  Polychromatic  Egyptian  Glass  Vases.  British  Mus.  15 

2.  Etruscan  Bronze  Statuette.  British  INIuseum 17 

3.  Etruscan  Bronze  Statuette.  British  Museum IS 

4.  Etruscan  Bronze  Venus  Statuette.  British  Museum.  19 

5.  Etruscan  Bronze  Statuette  of  Diana.  Brit.  Mus 20 

6.  Relief  from  a Stone  Etruscan  Cist.  British  IMuseuin.  21 

7.  Etruscan  Bronze  Statuette.  Mars.  British  Museum.  22 

8.  A^ase  from  an  Etruscan  Tomb.  British  Museum 23 

9.  Etruscan  Capital  from  a Tomb.  Vulci.  Brit.  Mus.  25 

10.  Ancient  Etruscan  Gateway.  AMlterra 27 

11.  The  Cloaca  Maxima,  Rome 30 

12.  Tuscan  (Doric)  Capital.  Roman  Period 31 

13.  Roman  Glass  from  the  Crimea.  British  Museum. . . 32 

14.  Roman  Triumphal  Arch.  North  Africa 33 

15.  Roman  Bronze  Statuette  of  Jupiter.  British  Museum  35 

16.  Roman  Aqueduct  in  Southern  France.  Nimes 36 

17.  Roman  Bronze  Statuette  found  in  England.  A Mili- 

tary Officer.  British  Museum 37 

18.  Roman  Gateway  in  Germany.  Trier 38 

19.  Roman  Ruins  in  Syria.  Baalbek 39 

20.  Roman  Aqueduct  in  Spain.  Segovia 40 

21.  Roman  Ruin.  East  Jordan  Territory 42 

Greco-Roman  Relief  from  the  Decoration  of  a Foun- 
tain. Lateran  Museum Facing  44 

22.  Faun.  Copy  after  Praxiteles.  Capitol,  Rome 45 

23.  Bust  of  Julius  Caesar.  Rome 46 

24.  Bronze  Statuette.  AVnus.  Naples 47 

25.  The  “ Maison  Carrie,”  Nimes 50 

Architectural  Frieze  Detail.  Lateran  Museum. 

From  Trajan’s  Forum Facing  50 

26.  Temple  of  Fortuna  ARrilis.  Rome 51 

27.  Temple  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina.  Rome 52 

28.  Temple  of  Minerva.  Assisi 52 

29.  Roman  Composite  (Corinthian)  Capital 53 

30.  Ruined  Apartment  in  the  Baths  of  Caracalla 54 

31.  The  Pantheon.  Rome 55 

32.  The  Basilica  of  Constantine.  Rome 56 

33.  Triumphal  Arch  of  Septimius  Severus.  Rome 57 

i 


ii  I.IST  OK  ILKUSTKATIOXS. 

Figxire.  Page. 

34.  The  Colosseum.  Rome -58 

.35.  Court  of  a Pompeiian  House 60 

36.  Pompeiian  Floor  Mosaic.  “Beware  of  the  Dog.” 

Naples  Museum 61 

37.  Pompeiian  Wall  Painting.  Naples  Museum 62 

38.  Pompeiian  Wall  Painting.  Naples  Museum 6.3 

39.  Roman  Mosaic.  The  Drinking  Doves.  Romo 64 

40.  Pompeiian  Street,  as  Excavated 66 

Roman  Portrait  Busts.  Capitol  kluseum Facing  C6 

41.  Pompeiian  Bronze  Lamps.  Naples  IMuseum 67 

-12.  Pompeiian  Weights.  Naples  Museum 68 

43.  A Poet  Fielding  a Tragic  Theatrical  Mask,  and  a 

Muse  (Relief).  Lateran,  Rome 69 

44.  Bronze  Statue  of  Drusus.  Naples  IMuseum 70 

45.  Roman  Portrait  Busts.  Caj)itol,  Rome 71 

46.  Bust  of  tlie  Emperor  Titus.  Najdes  Museum 72 

47.  Sleeping  Faun.  Bronze  from  Herculaneum.  Naples.  73 

48.  C’asts  from  Roman  Signet  Gems.  British  Museum. . 73 

49.  Wall  Painting.  Christ  and  the  Woman  of  Samaria. 

Catacomb  of  St.  Calixtus.  Fourth  Century 75 

50.  Basilica  Church  of  the  IMangcr.  Bethlehem.  Fourth 

Century 77 

51.  Basilica  of  St.  Paul,  Rome.  Rebuilt  1S2S.  Old 

Church,  Fourth  Century SO 

52.  Early  Christian  Sarcophagus  Relief.  The  Resur- 

rection of  Lazarus.  Ravenna SI 

53.  Early  Christian  Sarcophagus  Relief.  Christ  and 

Four  Apostles.  Ravenna S3 

54.  Early  Christian  Sarcophagus  Relief.  Daniel  in  the 

Lions’  Den.  Ravenna •''4 

55.  Ivory  Consular  Diptych.  Victory,  with  Globe  and 

Scepter.  Fourth  Century S6 

56.  Anglo-Saxon  Whalebone  Casket.  Northumberland.  95 

57.  Tenth  Century  AVall  Painting.  The  Annunciation. 

San  Clemente,  Rome 97 

58.  Carved  Ivory  Book  Covers,  Saints  or  Apostles.  Ra- 

venna. Tenth  Century 9S 

59.  Church  of  St.  jSIark.  Vestibule  with  Mosaics.  Venice  191 

69.  Byzantine  klosaic.  St.  IMark’s.  Venice 104 

61.  Byzantine  Mosaic.  Procession  of  Saints.  San  Apol- 

linare  Nuovo,  Ravenna.  Sixth  Century 106 

62.  Bvzantine  Mosaic  Detail.  Head  of  the  Empress 

Theodora.  San  Vitale,  Ravenna.  Sixth  Century.  107 

63.  Byzantine  ISIosaic.  The  Dav  of  Pentecost,  Tomb  of 

Galla  Placidia,  Ravenna,  tifth  Century 109 

64.  B^'zantine  Madonna  of  a Type  common  in  Italy 110 

65.  San  Lorenzo.  Rune.  Sixth  Century 113 

63.  San  Apollinare  Nuovo.  Ravenna.  Sixth  Century.  114 
67.  San  Ajtollinare  in  Classe.  Ravenna.  Sixth  Century.  115 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTKATIONS.  iii 

Figure.  Fnge. 

6S.  San  Apolliuare  Xuovo.  Ravenna.  Sixth  Century,  117 

69.  San  Apollinareiu  Classe.  Ravenna.  Sixth  Century.  IIS 

70.  San  Vitale.  Ravenna.  Sixth  Century RIO 

71.  St.  Sophia.  Constantinople.  Sixth  Century 123 

72.  St.  Sophia.  Constantinople 126 

Byzantine  Well,  Venice Facing  126 

Capitals  and  Arabesques  from  the  Alhambra. . Facing'  128 

73.  Mosque  El  Aksa.  Jerusalem 129 

74.  Mohammedan  Dome  and  Dome  of  the  Rock,  Jeru- 

salem   1.30 

75.  Arcades  in  the  INIosque  of  Amru.  Cairo 131 

76.  Hall  of  Justice  and  Court  of  the  Lions.  Alhambra.  132 

77.  Arcade  in  the  Alcazar.  Seville 133 

78.  South  Aisle,  Peterborough 135 

Romanesque  Enameled  Silver  Relic  Chests,  in  the 

Cathedral  Treasury,  Hildesheim Facing  136 

79.  Cathedral  of  Mainz' 137 

80.  Cathedral  of  Speyer 139 

81.  St.  Michael’s.  Hildesheim 140 

82.  Heieford  Cathedral 141 

83.  Mainz  Cathedral 144 

84.  Worms  Cathedral 145 

85.  Speyer  Cathedral 146 

86.  Portal.  Haughmond  Abbey 147 

87.  Pisa  Cathedral,  Bell  Tower,  and  Baptistery 148 

88.  Pisa  Cathedral 149 

89.  St.  Michael’s.  Lucca 150 

90.  Ivory  Carved  Book  Cover.  The  Deposition,  Hildes- 

heim. Eleventh  Century 151 

91.  Limoges  Enamel.  The  Virgin  INIary.  Twelfth 

Century 153 

92.  Ivory  Carved  Book  Cover.  The  Deposition  and  En- 

tombment. Thirteenth  Century.  Ravenna 154 

93.  Cologne  Cathedral 160 

94.  Transept.  Cologne  Cathedral 165 

95.  Wells  Cathedral 171 

96.  Lincoln  Cathedral 172 

97.  West  Front.  Melrose  Abbey 173 

98.  Cathedral  of  Bayonne 175 

99.  North  Aisle.  Canterbury 176 

100.  Cathedral  of  Nantes 177 

101.  Choir.  Milan  Cathedral 179 

102.  St.  Maclou.  Rouen 180 

103.  Choir.  Cathedral  of  Quimper 182 

104.  Tours  Cathedral.  (The  Flying  Buttress.) 184 

105.  Choir.  Cathedral  of  Amiens 185 

106.  Cloisters.  Winchester 186 

107.  Gothic  Details.  Southwell  Collegiate  Church.  Chap- 

ter House 187 


iv  LIST  OL  ILLUSTEATIOXS. 

Figure.  Page. 

lOS.  Lichfield  Cathedral 1S9 

109.  Cathedral  of  Poitiers 191 

Gothic  Portal  Sculpture  at  Lougpont  (Seine  et  Oise), 


110.  Gargoyle  and  Gothic  Details.  Xotre  Dame,  Paris. . . 193 

111.  South  Portal.  Chartres 196 

112.  West  Door.  Lichfield 197 

113.  English  Ivory  Triptych.  Fourteenth  Century 199 

114.  Virgin  Mary  from  the  Van  Eycks’  Altarpiece  in  Ghent  200 
llo.  Reli<iuary  of  St.  Ursula  in  Ghent.  Hans  Mending.  202 

116.  Detail  of  the  Reliquary  in  Ghent.  Hans  IMemling. . 203 

117.  The  Presentation.  Munich.  Roger  van  der  Weyden.  204 

118.  Guild-Hall  of  the  Cloth  Merchants.  Ypres 206 

119.  Palais  de  Justice.  Rouen 208 

120.  Ludlow  Castle 209 

121.  Aigues  Mortes.  Porte  de  la  Reine.  (Queen’s  Gate. ) 209 

122.  Gothic  Dwelling.  Hildesheim 210 

123.  Milan  Cathedral 211 

124.  Cathedral  of  Orvieto 212 

125.  Cathedral  of  Florence 213 

126.  Pulpit  of  the  Pisa  Baptistery.  By  Xicolo  Pisano. . . . 214 

127.  Detail  of  the  Pi.sa  Pulpit.  The  Crucifixion 216 

128.  Sculpture  of  Orvieto  Cathedral.  Story  of  the  Crea- 

tion. Giovaniu  Pisano,  and  Scholars 217 

129.  Giotto.  Tubal  Cain.  Florence  Campanile 218 

130.  Giotto.  Pythagoras  (Arithmetic)  Florence  Camjjanile  219 

131.  The  Madonna.  Prato.  Giovanni  Pisano 220 

132.  The  Upper  Church  of  St.  Francis.  Assisi 221 

133.  Cimabue.  The  Madonna.  Academy,  Florence 222 

134.  Duccio.  The  Madonna.  Perugia 224 

135.  Giotto.  St.  Joachim  Driven  from  the  Temple. 

Arena  Chapel,  Padua 225 

136.  Giotto.  St.  Joachim  accomplishes  the  Sacrifice. 

Arena  Chapel,  Padua 226 

137.  Giotto.  Birth  of  the  Virgin.  Arena  Chapel,  Padua.  226 

138.  Giotto.  Mary’s  Suitors  receiving  the  Rods  from  the 

High  Priest.  Arena  Chapel,  Padua 227 

139.  Giotto.  The  Nativity  of  Christ.  Arena  Chapel,  Padua  229 

140.  Giotto.  The  Flight  into  E^’pt.  Arena  Chapel,  Padua  230 

141.  Giotto.  Christ  Crowned  with  Thorns.  Arena  Chapel, 

Padua 231 

142.  Giotto.  The  Deposition.  Arena  Chapel 232 

143.  The  Campo  Santo.  Pisa 233 

144.  The  Campo  Santo.  Pisa 235 

14-5.  The  Municipal  Palace.  Prato 236 

146.  The  jMunicipal  Palace.  Volterra 237 

147.  Palazzo  Cil  d’Oro.  Venice 238 

148.  Palazzo  Francetti.  Venice 239 

149.  Detail  from  the  Doge’s  Palace.  Venice 240 


INTRODUCTION. 


It  is  a pity  tliat  tlie  word  ‘‘art’’  carries  with  it,  to 
a person  not  interested  in  the  subject  or  not  versed 
in  its  history,  a suggestion  of  luxury  and  of  superfluity, 
as  contrasted  with  the  utilitarian  or  the  practical. 
Where  this  possibly  derogatory  tinge  of  meaning  is 
not  suggested,  there  is  generally  at  least  a feeling  that 
the  matters  which  the  word  calls  up  are  those  of  interest 
to  the  specialist  in  design  rather  than  to  the  world  at 
large.  People  who  are  supposed  to  be  interested  in 
“art”  might,  according  to  this  view,  possibly  not  be  in- 
terested in  literature  or  in  history.  Contrary-wise, 
people  interested  in  history  or  in  literature  might 
possibly  not  be  interested  in  “art.” 

It  is  true  that  in  recent  centuries,  those  namely  of 
recent  modern  history,  the  arts  of  painting  and  sculp- 
ture at  least,  have  become  mainly  matters  of  luxury,  and 
that  as  arts  of  popular  education  and  instruction  they 
have  been  displaced  by  printed  books.  Hence  the  diffi- 
culty of  making  immediately  apparent,  before  the 
subject  itself  has  been  opened  up,  that  a history  of  art  is 
not  so  much  a history  of  the  arts  of  design  as  it  is  a his- 
tory of  civilization.  But  if  this  point  is  not  apparent  in 
advance,  it  is  notwithstanding  the  point  which  in  recent 
years  has  drawn  more  and  more  attention  to  the  subject, 
until  it  is  beginning  to  figure  as  an  indispensable  part  of 
the  philosophy  and  knowledge  of  general  history. 


VI 


INTRODUCTION. 


As  soon  as  history  ceases  to  be  conceived  as  a series  of 
disconnected  national  chronicles,  as  soon  as  it  begins  to 
be  conceived  as  a sequent  evolution  of  races  and  of 
epochs — which  has  been  unbroken  in  continuity  since 
the  time  of  the  Chaldeans  and  Egyptians  down  to  the 
nineteenth  century — the  history  of  art  appears  as  a 
study  of  the  first  importance.  This  is  because  it  deals 
with  the  now  visible  relics  of  the  past;  not  only  with 
buildings,  statues,  reliefs,  and  paintings,  but  with 
fabrics,  utensils,  coins,  furniture,  and  all  the  accessories 
of  daily  life  ; for  in  historic  periods  all  these  things 
were  given  an  appropriate  artistic  treatment  and  setting 
forth.  As  revelations  of  the  life  of  a nation  or  an  epoch 
these  relics  afipeal  to  the  imagination  because  they 
appeal  to  the  eye  and  assist  each  student  to  picture 
the  past  to  himself.  The  student  is  no  longer,  then, 
dependent  on  the  descriptions  and  accounts  of  another 
student;  he  becomes  himself  an  independent  historian, 
for  whoever  evokes  in  imagination  the  life  of  the  past 
deserves  this  title.  Tlie  history  of  art  has,  moreover, 
especial  value  for  a true  philosophy  of  history  in  that  it 
forces  the  student  to  subordinate  the  history  of  nations 
to  the  history  of  epochs.  The  grand  divisions  between 
the  successive  epochs  of  the  ascendency  of  the  ancient 
Oriental  nations — of  the  Greeks,  of  the  Komans,  of  the 
Germanic  races  (ihe  Middle  Ages),  and  of  the  Italians 
(the  Renaissance) — are  only  seen  distinctly  when  the 
history  of  art  is  called  in  evidence.  As  regards  the 
epochs  treated  by  this  work,  those  of  the  Romans  and  of 
the  Middle  Age,  the  student  must  judge  from  the  book 
itself  how  far  a general  knowledge  of  historic  life  and 
civilization  is  involved  in  the  topics  treated. 


PART  1. 


ROMAN  ART. 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


PART  I. -ROMAN  ART. 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  PKEHISTOEIC  AGE. 

The  earliest  relics  of  man’s  existence  in  Europe  are 
roughly  chipped  implements  and  weapons  of  flint  and 
stone,  of  horn  and  bone,  the  latter  frequently  resembling 
those  used  by  the  modern  Esquimaux  and  the  former 
similar  to  those  still  used  by  absolutely  savage  races. 
Of  a later  date  are  other  stone  implements  carefully 
flnished  and  polished.  There  is  a gap,  or  “hiatus,”  be- 
tween the  age  of  rough  stone  implements,  the  Palteo- 
lithic  time,  and  the  “age  of  polished  stone”  the 
Neolithic  time.*  The  highly  vigorous  drawings  of 
animals  on  bone  or  ivory  which  belong  to  the  Palfeolithic 
age  are  not  found  in  the  later  age  of  polished  stone. 

It  is  not  within  our  knowledge  to  say  that  Europe  was 
uninhabited  in  the  intervening  time  but  it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  the  race  of  the  age  of  exclusively  rough  stone 
implements,  whose  artistic  efforts  were  so  singularly  in- 
stinct with  vitality,  has  anything  to  do  with  the  later 
history  of  art  in  Europe.  This  race  was  apparently  ex- 
terminated, supplanted,  or  succeeded,  by  the  race  which 


* It  is  to  be  explained  that  the  manufacturing  of  unpolished  stone  im- 
plements was  not  abandoned  in  the  age  of  polished  stone,  but  this  age  is 
specified  by  its  best  and  distinctive  work;  and  there  was  in  it  an  improve- 
ment generally  in  the  finish  of  all  these  implements. 


10 


ROMAIS'  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


used  the  implements  of  polished  stone,  and  it  was  this 
latter  race  which  gradually  acquired  the  arts  of  metal 
and  especially  of  bronze,  and  so  began  the  later  continu- 
ous history  of  Europe. 

There  is  no  known  decorated  pottery  of  this  age  which 
precedes  the  use  of  metals  and  there  are  no  other  re- 
mains of  design  preceding  this  use  ; pottery,  on  account 
of  its  indestructibility,*  being  usually  the  material  on 
which  the  earliest  efforts  of  art  are  preserved. 

The  first  appearance  of  metallic  arts  in  Europe  and  of 
decorated  pottery,  appears  to  be  due  to  the  infiuence  of 
a foreign  and  Oriental  civilization.  There  is  also  a 
sequence  apparent  in  the  order  of  development,  as  re- 
gards the  influence  of  this  foreign  civilization,  in  which 
sequence  the  territories  of  Greece  preceded  those  of 
Italy ; while  Italy  in  turn  preceded  Switzerland,  Ger- 
many, France,  and  Spain.  The  indications  in  artistic 
forms  and  designs  of  a graded  geographical  contiguity  in 
development  are  the  strongest  evidence  that  it  took  place. 

Now,  the  point  I wish  to  make  is  this — that  as  re- 
gards the  history  of  civilization  and  of  art  in  Europe, 
we  begin  our  knowledge  with  the  existence  of  opposing 
lioles  of  highly  developed  civilizations  and  of  very 
primitive,  though  not  absolutely  barbaric,  human  culture. 
Eegarding  the  origin  or  beginnings  of  either  of  these  con- 
ditions we  know  nothing.  At  the  earliest  dates  known 
to  us  for  Chaldea  and  Egypt,  material  civilization 
appears  to  have  been  absolutely  perfect  for  the  given 
local  surroundings.  At  the  earliest  dates  known  to  us 
for  Europe  subsequent  to  the  age  of  unpolished  stone, 
the  culture  is  highly  primitive  but  it  already  shows 
influences  of  indirect  or  direct  contact  with  the  old 


* Not  as  regards  breakage,  but  as  regards  material. 


THE  PEEHISTORIC  AGE. 


11 


Asiatic  and  African  cultures.  These  influences  were 
earlier  in  Greece,  apparently  slightly  later  in.  Italy,  and 
certainly  later  in  Germany,  France,  Spain,  and  England. 

The  modiflcations  made  by  Greece  in  creating  its  own 
independent  civilization  out  of  the  Oriental  were  nlti- 
mately  also  lawgiving  for  Italy,  which  ultimately  adopted 
them  all. 

The  modifications  made  by  Italy  in  creating  its  own 
independent  civilization  out  of  the  Oriental,  and  out  of 
the  Greek,  were  ultimately  lawgiving  for  South  Ger- 
many, France,  Spain,  and  part  of  England ; which 
countries  ultimately  adopted  them  all.  The  history  of 
these  last  modifications  is  the  history  of  Eome. 

Four  and  five  hundred  years  after  Christ  the  hitherto 
independent  Germanic  races  of  Northern  Europe  flooded 
the  Eomanized  portions  of  Europe,  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  their  religion  and  civilization  and  so  began 
the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  of  medieval  art. 

These  explanations  assist  us  now  to  speak  of  Italy  in 
the  narrower  sense,  as  sharing  the  history  of  all  other 
European  countries  as  regards  the  Palaeolithic  Stone 
Age  and  the  Age  of  Polished  Stone  and  of  Bronze. 
But  the  history  of  art  in  Italy  begins  with  the  age  of 
decorated  pottery  and  of  metals — that  is  to  say,  it  begins 
with  the  history  of  the  foreign  influences  of  a superior 
foreign  civilization  on  the  primitive  culture  of  Italy,  of 
which  let  it  be  once  more  said  we  know  nothing  before 
this  influence  began. 

The  date  1500  B.  C.  would  be,  according  to  present 
knowledge,  rather  a high  one  for  the  first  introduction 
of  bronze  into  the  territories  of  Switzerland,  and  ap- 
proximate estimates  may  be  made  accordingly  for  other 
countries  ; north  or  south,  as  the  case  may  be. 


CHAPTEE  II. 

ROMAN  HISTORY  AND  ROMAN  ART. 

Some  clear  conception  of  the  outlines  of  Eoman  and 
therefore  of  ancient  Italian  history,  is  an  elementary 
condition  of  the  study  or  knowledge  of  Eoman  art. 
But  by  the  word  history  we  must  understand  here  not 
the  list  of  the  Eoman  kings  or  the  chronicles  of  Eoman 
wars  or  battles  or  the  lives  of  the  famous  statesmen  and 
emperors,  but  rather  an  account  of  the  general  con- 
ditions of  the  civilization.  To  this  account  the  Eoman 
art  itself  offers  the  greatest  assistance  and  it  is  for  this 
reason  that  we  study  it ; but  there  are  entire  centuries 
from  which  monuments*  are  lacking  for  the  Eomans 
themselves,  and  for  which  the  general  conditions  of 
Italian  history  and  civilization  must  be  our  guide  in 
resurrecting  in  imagination  that  art  of  the  Eomans 
which  once  summarized  and  expressed  their  charac- 
ter. 

Broadly  speaking,  it  is  not  till  seven  centuries  of 
Eoman  history  have  been  passed  over  in  imagination 
that  we  can  mention  existing  visible  remains  of  its 
greatness  ; and  Eoman  art  as  we  know  it  is  mainly  the 
art  of  the  empire,  which  belongs  to  the  five  centuries  be- 
tween the  accession  of  Augustus  (B.  C.  31)  and  the 

* The  word  is  used  in  a sense  meaning  any  surviving  visible  relic, 
whether  of  building  or  otherwise. 


12 


The  Ruins  of  the  Roman  Forum. 


ROMAN  HISTOEA"  AND  ROMAN  ART. 


13 


chieftainsliip  of  Odoacer,  the  first  Germanic  ruler  of 
Italy  (A.  D.  476).* 

It  is  clear  that  a history  of  Eoman  art  is  not  merely  a 
description  of  the  ruins  and  relics  which  have  come 
down  to  our  day.  Even  for  the  periods  which  have  been 
most  fortunate  in  such  survivals,  the  actual  remains  are 
a most  insignificant  and  fragmentary  portion  of  those 
which  once  existed.  They  assist  us,  however,  to  think 
of  these  others  as  once  existing.  And  so  of  the  periods 
which  have  left  us  practically  nothing  of  the  Eomans,  it 
also  holds  that  our  effort  to  reconceive  them  is  vastly 
assisted  by  what  we  know  of  other  Italian  art,  which 
has  been  somewhat  more  fortunate  as  regards  survivals. 

But  there  is  still  a point  to  be  made  in  the  matter  of 
history  as  affecting  Eoman  art.  The  word  Eoman  has 
most  singularly  diverse  meanings  at  different  times. 
During  the  time  of  the  monarchy  (750-510  B.  C.)  it  ap- 
plies at  first  to  a territory  about  ten  miles  wide  by 
twenty  long.  During  the  later  republic  and  between 
275-31  B.  C.  it  includes  the  whole  of  Italy,  f During 
the  time  of  the  empire  (B.  C.  31-A.  D.  476)  it  includes 
all  the  countries  surrounding  the  Mediterranean  basin  as 
well  as  portions  of  Britain,  Germany,  and  Hungary. 
And  these  changes  are  not  simply  changes  of  area 
which  imply  a series  of  widening  conquests  of  foreign 
peoples  which  are  ruled  from  a distance  by  foreigners  to 


* We  do  not  consider  Roman  history  in  any  sense  as  ending  with  the 
German  Invasions  of  the  fifth  century  A.  D.,  for  it  lasted  a thousand  years 
longer  in  Eastern  Europe.  But  the  ancient  art  and  history  of  Rome,  accord- 
ing to  the  current  system  of  terminology,  ended  about  this  time ; after 
which  we  speak  of  medieval  art  and  history  in  Western  Europe  and  of 
Byzantine  (East  Roman)  art  and  history  in  Eastern  Europe. 

t The  Northern  Po  valley  was  excluded  from  the  political  conception  of 
Italy  until  the  time  of  Csesar. 


14 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


them.  The  Eomans  changed  in  quality,  character,  and 
literally  in  race,  as  much  as  the  areas  of  domination 
changed.  The  Eoman  of  the  fifth  century  A.  D.  was 
any  freeman  living  within  the  largest  boundaries  of  the 
state — a Gaul,  Briton,  Spaniard,  North  African,  Egyp- 
tian, Syrian,  or  Greek — and  at  this  time  he  was  not  only 
Eoman  in  name  but  also  in  language  (if  living  in  West- 
ern Europe),  in  laws,  in  rights,  and  in  civilization.  The 
Eoman  of  the  times  of  Marius  and  Sulla  (first  century 
B.  C.)  was  any  freeman  within  the  boundaries  of  Italy — 
Etruscan,  Gaul,  or  Samnite,  as  the  case  might  be.  The 
Eomans  of  the  time  of  the  early  kings  did  not  even  in- 
clude the  Latin  tribe  to  which  they  otherwise  belonged 
and  whose  language  was  their  own. 

It  is  clear  then  that  the  term  Eoman  art  is  also  not  a 
fixed  term.  It  implies  also  different  things  at  different 
times.  Luckily,  however,  it  assists  us  to  say  in  every 
time  what  the  Eomans  of  that  time  really  were. 

Early  Italian  and  Etruscan  Art. 

We  must  begin  then  with  some  general  conception  of 
Italy  at  large  in  the  time  when  the  Eoman  city  was  first 
founded  (about  750  B.  C.)  and  also  with  some  concep- 
tion of  the  relations  of  the  whole  country  to  the  exterior 
civilization  of  its  time. 

In  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  before  Christ, 
ancient  Egypt  was  only  two  centuries  and  a quarter  dis- 
tant from  final  national  downfall,  with  the  Persian  con- 
quest, and  Assyria  had  a century  less  of  national 
existence  to  run  through.  The  time  even  of  Eome’s 
foundation  was  therefore  not  an  early  one  in  ancient 
history,  which  dates  the  Egyptian  monarchy  to  5000 
B.  C.,  and  which  concedes  that  the  civilization  of 


KOMAN  HISTORY  AXD  ROMAN  ART.  15 

Chaldea  had  reached  its  highest  perfection  at  the 
time  of  the  great  pyramids.  For  many  centuries  be- 
fore Eome’s  foundation,  Italy  had  shared  with  other 
Mediterranean  countries  the  benefits  of  Phenician  com- 
merce and  that  is  to  say  that  it  was  very  intimately 
acquainted,  at  least  through  trade,  with  the  technical 

t ' , 


Fig.  1.— Polychromatic  Egyptian  Glass  Vases  from  Italy. 
British  Museum. 


arts  and  inventions  of  the  Egyptian  and  Mesojiotamian 
civilizations.  For  the  Phenicians  made  their  living 
as  merchants  and  their  own  civilization  was  entirely 
of  Egyptian  or  Assyrian  derivation.*  Their  great 
colony  of  Carthage  had  been  founded  in  North  Africa 
about  fifty  years  before  the  foundation  of  Eome,  but 
this  was  only  one  of  countless  settlements  which  they 
made  along  the  shores  of  North  and  Northwest  Africa, 


^Assyrian  civilization  was  a repetition  and  continuation  of  the  Chaldean. 


16 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


of  Spain,  of  Southern  France,  of  Sardinia,  and  Corsica. 

Thus  one  element  of  Italian  and  therefore  of  Eoman 
art  was  the  Oriental,  but  this  point  applies  less  to  style 
than  it  does  to  technical  manipulation  and  the  knowl- 
edge and  uses  of  materials  and  tools.  In  the  matter  of 
style  we  shall  observe  some  Oriental  traits  in  surviving 
examples  of  early  Italian  art,  but  here  rather  because  of 
Greek  influences,  which  in  early  days  themselves  ex- 
hibited an  Oriental  character.  This  leads  us  to  consider 
the  influence  of  the  Greeks  in  Italy  as  contrasted  with 
that  of  the  Phenicians. 

The  Greek  colonies  of  Italy  were  especially  numerous 
around  its  southern  shores,  but  they  reached  as  high 
north  as  Pisa.  In  Sicily  they  were  especially  important. 
Many  of  them  were  flourishing  civic  states  as  early 
as  the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries  B.  C.,  and  the 
Greeks  had  become  very  active  rivals  of  Phenician 
commerce  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean  as  early  as  the 
eighth  century. 

Italian  art,  when  we  first  know  it,  is  thus  composed  of 
two  factors — the  Oriental  (through  Phenician  commerce) 
and  the  Greek — the  Greek  having  overlaid  the  Oriental 
substratum  of  technical  inventions  with  its  own  peculiar 
style,  which  in  its  early  days  had  itself  an  Oriental  guise 
and  quality. 

The  three  Italian  nations  which  we  know  best  at  the 
time  of  Pome’s  foundation  (aside  from  the  Greek  settlers 
of  Italy)  are  the  Samnites,  the  Etruscans,  and  the  Gauls. 
They  were  mainly  settled  in  the  order  named  from  south 
to  north.  The  Gauls  were  the  ruling  nation  of  the  Po 
valley  ; the  Etruscans  were  especially  strong  in  modern 
Tuscany,  which  is  named  after  them,  although  they  had 
settlements  also  in  Campania  (in  the  vicinity  of  Xaples). 


ROMAN  HISTORA'  AND  ROMAN  ART. 


17 


Among  these  nations  we  owe  most  to  the  Etruscans  for 
our  general  knowledge  of  ancient  Italy,  in  which  they 
were  certainly  the  most  highly  civ- 
ilized and  powerful  native  nation. 

Aside  from  a few  walls,  tunneled  aque- 
ducts, and  arches,  we  know  them  best 
from  the  objects  found  in  their  tombs. 

Like  other  ancient  nations  the 
Etruscans  believed  in  a life  after 
death,  and  like  other  ancient  nations, 
they  actually  believed  that  the  uten- 
sils, ornaments,  and  surroundings  of 
this  life  were  available  for  the  use  of 
the  deceased  in  the  spirit  world.* 

Hence  the  practice  of  burying  in  the 
tombs  so  many  various  objects  of  daily 
life,  which,  as  excavated  in  the  last 
two  centuries,  now  enable  us  to  recon- 
struct a picture  of  ancient  civilization. 

The  museums  which  are  especially 
rich  in  the  objects  from  Etruscan 
tombs  are  those  of  the  Vatican  at 
Eome  and  of  Florence,  while  many 
others  are  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris  and 
in  the  British  Museum.  These  objects  are  by  no  means 
exclusively  of  Etruscan  art  and  manufacture.  Many  of 
them  are  importations  of  commerce  derived  from  the 
Greeks  and  from  the  Phenicians,  which  are  significant 


Fig.  2.— Etruscan 
Bronze  Statuette. 
British  Museum. 


* The  traditionai  practice  of  placing  these  objects  in  the  tombs  undoubt- 
edly survived  by  many  centuries  the  belief  in  their  actual  utility  to  the 
dead.  The  practice  continued  among  all  pagan  nations  until  the  triumph 
of  Christianity  in  the  fourth  century  A.  D.,  and  there  were  many  philo- 
sophic minds  which  were  superior  to  so  materialistic  a view  of  the  after  life 
at  least  as  early  as  the  fifth  century  before  Christ. 


18 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEYAD  ART. 


of  the  general  influences  and  conditions  under  which 
the  Italian  art  developed,  as  already  mentioned. 

Bronze,  silver,  and  gold  vessels,  occasionally  vases, 
more  frequently  saucer- shaped  pater  as,  are  embossed 
and  engraved  in  an  Egyptian  style  and  with  Egyptian 

subjects,  and  were  made  and 
sold  by  the  Phenicians.  Sim- 
ilar ones  found  in  Cyprus'can 
be  seen  in  the  Xew  York 
Museum  and  are  illustrated 
in  Cesnola’s  “Cyprus.”  Arti- 
cles of  jewelry  of  Egypto- 
Phenician  make  and  style  are 
especially  well  represented  in 
the  Campana  Collection  of  the 
Louvre  and  in  the  Vatican. 
The  Etruscans  were  them- 
selves great  workers  in  metal, 
at  first  under  Oriental  tute- 
lage, and  consequently  using 
Oriental  patterns  in  the  pieces 
of  earlier  date.  Large  bronze 
shields  and  vessels  of  their 
make  can  be  seen  in  the 
British  Museum.  3Iuch  more 
numerous  in  the  modern  finds 
are  vessels  of  black  pottery  Bucchero  ware”)  with 
raised  patterns  imitating  the  embossed  designs  of  metal. 
Diminutive  vases  of  opaque  polychromatic  glass  which 
were  used  for  unguents  or  perfumes  of  the  toilet  were 
among  the  objects  of  Egyptian  importation. 

Various  miscellaneous  objects  of  the  above-mentioned 
classes  can  be  dated  to  the  seventh  century  B.  C.  It  is 


Fig.  3.— Etruscan  Bronze 
Statuette. 

British  Museum. 


BOMAN  HISTORY  AND  ROMAN  ART. 


19 


not  likely  that  many  of  those  known  are  older  than  the 
eighth.  Among  the  most  famous  excavated  early 
Etruscan  tombs  are  the  “Reg- 
ulini-Galassi  ” tomb  at  Cer- 
vetri  and  the  ^^Polledrara” 
tomb  at  Vulci. 

As  early  at  least  as  the  sixtli 
century  B.  0.  Greek  influences 
are  very  distinct  in  Etruscan 
art  and  were  in  fact  dominant 
from  that  time.  They  are 
not,  however,  obvious  to  an 
eye  accustomed  to  the  per- 
fected Greek  style  and  to  a 
person  unaware  how  thor- 
oughly Oriental  in  appearance 
the  early  Greek  art  really  was. 

The  Cypriote  Greek  statuettes 
and  figurines  of  the  New  York 
Museum  will  offer,  however, 
many  analogies  to  the  figures 
shown  here  in  the  text.  The 
rude  appearance  of  Figure  2 
would  only  allow  us  to  say 
that,  although  iu  fact  Etrus- 
can, it  might  have  been  made 
by  any  Mediterranean  people, 
imitating  Oriental  art  in  a 
rude  way ; for  if  the  figure 
had  been  Egyptian  it  might 
have  been  equally  stiff  in  pos- 
ture but  it  would  be  far  more 
refined  and  finished  in  details.  But  with  Figs.  3 and. 


Fig.  4.— Etruscan  Bronze 
Venus  Statuette. 
British  Museum. 


20 


EOJIAIS'  AXD  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


4 we  have  unmistakable  Greek  traits,  although  the  fig- 
ures themselves  are  Etruscan.  There  is  no  reason  for 
dating  any  of  these  figures  earlier  than  the  sixth  century 
B.  C.,  although  they  represent  a style  which  had  ex- 
isted in  Italy  for  some 
considerable  time  be- 
fore that  date.  This 
style  continued  with 
some  slight  improve- 
ment in  the  early  fifth 
century  B.  C.,  as  il- 
lustrated in  Figure  5. 

W e have  here  a 
very  good  illustration, 
not  only  of  the  early 
Etruscan  art,  but  also 
of  the  Greek  art  of 
the  same  time,  on 
which  it  now  became 
dependent.  This  stat- 
uette is  a typical  one 
for  Greek  and  Etrus- 
can style  down  to  the 
very  threshold  of  the 
Phidian  pei'iod.  The 
pose  shows  Egyptian 
influences  and  jilaces 
the  left  leg  in  ad- 
vance, which  is  al- 
ways found  in  Egyptian  statues  which  place  the  legs 
in  action.  The  drapery  and  gestures  of  the  arms  are 
distinctly  early  Greek.  The  bulging  eyes  would  not  be 
found,  however,  in  a Greek  piece  which  had  reached 


Fig.  5.— Etruscan  Bronze  Statuette 
OF  Diana.  British  Museum. 


EOMAX  HKTOKY  AXB  KOMAA  AET. 


21 


the  technical  perfection  of  the  execution  here ; and  this 
execution,  it  should  be  observed,  is  by  no  means  rude. 
The  zigzag  drapery  lines  (observable  in  5 and  4)  are 
originally  imitations  in  Greek  art  from  wooden  figurines 
used  in  shrines,  which  were  dressed  in  actual  stuffs 
plaited  to  the  figure  in  a manner  thus  copied. 

On  the  whole  it  should  be  said  that  very  erroneous  con- 
clusions as  to  the  general  condition  of  a civilization  might 
be  drawn  from  the  odd  appearance  of  such  figures. 
Something  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  conservative  influ- 
ence of  religious  tradition,  but  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  world  did  not  yet  know  that  perfection  of  Greek 
art  which  has  since  become  commonplace.  The  Oriental 


Fig.  6. — Rei.ief  froji  a Ktoxe  Etruscan  Cist.  British  Museum. 

art  which  had  so  far  ruled  the  civilized  world,  and 
whose  influences  are  still  apparent  in  these  illustrations, 
had  reached  a high  perfection  of  formal  and  technical 


22 


eo:man  axd  medieval  art. 


execution,  but  sculpture  as  practiced  by  the  Egyptians 

had  not  for  nianj’ 
centuries  deviated  from 
a fixed  and  motionless 
conception  of  the  sit- 
ting and  standing  fig- 
ure and  the  very  per- 
fection of  Egyptian 
civilization  c o n t r i b - 
uted  to  restrain  and 
formalize  at  the  outset 
the  art  of  nations  which 
were  learning  from  it. 


The  early  Etruscan 
surface  design  (paint- 
ings as  known  from 
tomb  frescoes,  and  re- 
liefs) exhibits  some 
traits  foreign  to  Greek 
style  and  also  a general 
dependence  on  it.  In 
the  relief  from  Chiusi 
(6)  the  exaggeration 
and  contortion  of  the 
attitudes  are  dis- 
tinctively Etruscan,  al- 
though the  general  con- 
ception of  the  art  shows 
Greek  traditions.  A 
certain  straining  and 
violence  in  the  attitudes  of  reliefs  is  very  common  in 
Etruscan  art  and  is  well  illustrated  here.  The  date  is 
not  far  from  500  B.  C. 


Fig.  7.— Etruscan  Bronze  statuette. 
Mars.  British  Museum. 


ROMAN  HISTORY  AND  ROMAN  ART. 


23 


We  come  tiieu  finally,  as  regards  the  art  of  design,  to 
tliat  which  shows  dependence  on  the  perfected  style  of 
the  Greeks.  Figure  7 would  be  an  illustration  of  this 
class  and,  judging  from  the  face,  is  of  a relatively  early 
date — late  fifth,  or  early  fourth  century  B.  0.  From 
this  time  on,  Etruscan  art  is  Greek  in  matter  as  well  as 
manner,  and  with  such  slight  deviations  from  the 
original  that  a practiced  eye  is  required  to  note  them. 
Quite  numerous  in  the  museums  of  Europe  are  the 

ladies’  bronze  mirrors 
which  are  decorated 
on  the  back  with  sub- 
jects of  Greek  myth, 
and  the  circular 
bronze  cists  which 
held  objects  for 
the  toilet  are  deco- 
rated in  the  same 
fashion. 

The  most  palpable 
indication  of  the 
Greek  influences  in 
Etruscan,  and  there- 
fore in  Italian,  art  is 
the  very  large  num- 
ber of  imported  Greek 
painted  pottery  vases 
found  in  tlie  tombs. 
So  numerous  are  they 
that  the  presumption 
long  prevailed  that 
they  were  native  Etruscan  works,  and  the  title  of  Etrus- 
can vases  ” still  clings  in  popular  use  to  them,  although 


Fig.  8.— Greek  Vase  from  an  Etruscan 
Tomb.  British  Museum. 


24 


ROMAX  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


not  one  in  a thousand  was  actually  Etruscan  work. 

The  Etruscans  were  especially  famous  for  their  skill 
in  working  terra  cotta  (baked  clay)  of  which  many  ex- 
amples survive.  In  gem  cutting  they  even  excelled  the 
Greeks,  as  far  as  actual  skill  in  execution  is  concerned. 
Their  bronze  utensils  were  in  request  at  Athens  for 
artistic  workmanship  in  the  best  days  of  Athenian  art. 

The  two  most  noted  existing  works  of  Etruscan  art 
are  the  life-size  bronze  wolf  of  the  Capitol  Museum  in 
Eome  and  the  large  bi’onze  Chimtera  in  Florence. 
Their  sculptured  stone  sarcophagi  and  stone  cists  (for 
the  ashes  of  cremated  bodies)  are  quite  numerous  in 
several  museums,  but  the  decorative  reliefs  and  sur- 
mounting reclining  figures  of  these  works  are  generally 
of  rather  inferior  art  and  execution. 

Finally,  we  have  to  mention  the  Etruscans  as  engi- 
neers and  architects.  It  is  here  that  they  must  have 
been  most  helpful  to  the  Romans.  Xo  ruins  of  Etruscan 
temples  have  survived.  They  are  known  to  have  re- 
sembled the  Greek  temples  in  form  and  are  presumed  to 
have  been  rather  inferior  to  them  in  the  beauty  of  detail 
and  of  proportious.  The  Etruscans  are  credited  with 
devising  the  cold  and  formal  style  of  Doric  capital  which 
was  generally  used  by  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  the 
empire  (when  they  emiiloyed  the  Doric)  and  which  has 
been  known  as  the  ‘‘Tuscan”  Order  (Fig.  12).  It  has 
been  shown,  however,  by  an  American  archieologist.* 
that  the  so-called  Tuscan  Doric  capital  is  probably  the 
survival  of  a very  simple  and  undeveloped  Doric  form, 
rather  than  the  late  corruption  and  debasement  of  a 


* Dr.  Joseph  Tbacher  Clarke ; translator  of  Rebel's  ‘‘History  of  Ancient 
Art,”  and  excavator  at  Assos  in  Asia  Minor  for  the  Archseological  Insti- 
tute of  America. 


KOMAX  lllSTOKY  AXD  KOMAX  ART. 


25 


better  one.  The  capital  in  question,  as  illustrated  here 
from  a modern  drawing,  lacks  the  fine  curve,  and  bold 

projection  of  the  Par- 
thenon Doric  and  is 
also  distinguished 
from  the  Greek  Doric 
by  a projecting  fillet 
at  the  top  of  the  col- 
umn. It  is  probable 
that  the  so-called 
Composite  Order  of 
the  Eomans  (Fig.  29) 
originated  with  the 
Etruscans.  A very 
interesting  and  beau- 
tiful variant  of  the 
Ionic  capital  in  the  British  Museum  shows  an  antici- 
pation of  this  form  in  the  row  of  acanthus  leaves  around 
the  neck  (Fig.  9). 

The  most  famous  contribution  of  the  Etruscans  to 
Roman  art  is  the  use  of  the  arch  (Figs.  10,  11).  That 
they  Avere  the  first  to  use  it  in  Italy  is  clear  and  it  is  also 
clear  that  they  used  it  largely,  though  even  the  ruins  of 
their  work  in  this  line  are  scanty.  The  early  use  of  the 
arch  in  Oriental  countries  is  now  generally  conceded 
and  it  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  arts  which  the  Etrus- 
cans borrowed  from  the  East.  The  keystone  arch  was 
discovered  in  Egypt  in  1891,  in  a tomb  at  May  doom, 
belonging  to  the  Third  Dynasty  (over  4000  B.  C.).*  It 
has  long  been  known  in  brick  arches  at  Thebes,  which 
are  dated  to  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  (1600  B.  C.).  Its 


Fig. 9.— Etruscan  Capital  from  a Tomb, 
VuLCT.  British  Museum. 


By  Mr.  Wm.  Af.  Flinders  Petrie. 


26 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


use  in  ancient  Assyria  is  demonstrated  in  doorways, 
gateways,  and  drains,  and  is  almost  certainly  demon- 
strated for  the  vaulting  (roofing)  of  Assyrian  palaces. 
The  general  repugnance  of  Greek  builders  to  the  arch  is 
notorious  and  its  later  widespread  use  throughout  the 
modern  world  is  certainly  due  to  the  Etruscans,  as  the 
Romans  learned  its  use  from  them.  Their  capacity  as 
engineers  is  attested  by  various  drainage  constructions, 
of  which  the  most  famous  is  the  Cloaca  Maxima,  or  great 
sewer,  at  Rome,  dating  from  the  sixth  century  B.  C. 
(Fig.  11.) 

The  Etruscan  political  system  was  one  of  independent 
cities  banded  together  for  foreign  emergencies  and  ruled 
by  oligarchy.  This  alliance  of  civic  states  was  ultimately 
conquered  by  Rome  during  the  Samnite  wars  (in  which 
the  Etruscans  were  no  less  engaged  than  the  Samnites) 
between  350  and  290  B.  C.  They  were  then  gradually 
absorbed  into  the  Roman  political  system.  The  Etrus- 
cans were  all  Roman  citizens  before  the  first  century  of 
the  Christian  era.  Their  language  was  displaced  by  the 
Latin,  and  in  this  the  conquest  of  the  Roman  was  most 
apparent,  for  there  is  no  conquest  of  force  which  can 
equal  that  involved  in  the  disappearance  of  a language. 
No  literature  of  the  Etruscans  has  survived.  Their  lan- 
guage as  found  in  inscriptions  is  undeciphered  and 
appears  to  be  foreign  in  derivation  to  other  speeches  of 
Europe.  Their  alphabet  was  borrowed  from  the  Greeks 
and  their  deities  appear  to  have  been  roughly  analogous 
to  theirs.  Their  religion,  as  would  appear  from  tomb 
paintings,  was  more  fantastic  and  more  gloomy  than  the 
Greek.  Considering  the  great  excellence  of  their  art 
and  their  obvious  importance  as  a nation,  almost  nothing 
is  known  of  this  people.  They  are  still  awaiting  their 


K03IAX  HISTOKV  AAB  ROMAX  ART. 


27 


histoi’iau.  This  is  partly  owing  to  our  ignorance  of  their 
language,  and  their  laek  of  a surviving  literature  ; but 
it  is  a grand  point  to  understand  that  although  they  dis- 


Fig.  10.— Ancient  Etruscan  G.vteway.  Volterra. 


28 


KOMAX  AXD  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


appear  froui  history  in  name  with  the  third  century 
B.  C. — they  did  not  disappear  in  fact.  They  were  not 
exterminated  or  decimated  as  a race.  They  had  been 
the  foremost  native  people  of  Italy  in  its  early  civiliza- 
tion, and  as  Roman  subjects  and  Roman  citizens  they 
continued  to  play  their  part — less  conspicuously,  but  not 
less  serviceably.  Miecenas,  the  great  patron  of  letters 
and  friend  of  Augustus,  was  an  Etruscan — so  were  the 
Emperors  Vespasian  and  Titus.  Their  artistic  talents 
and  technical  knowledge  certainly  did  their  full  share  of 
service  to  the  Roman  imperial  period  which  concealed 
under  its  name  and  shadow  so  many  nations  and  so  many 
national  talents.  In  the  Middle  Ages  and  in  the  Italian 
Renaissance  the  Tuscan  artists  were  the  foremost  of 
Italy.* 

* A small  but  interesting  collection  of  Etruscan  objects  is  in  the  Boston 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts. 


CHAPTER  HI. 

THE  EAELY  EOHAN  ART. 

Our  sketch  and  illustrations  of  Etruscan  art  must 
serve  to  give  some  idea  of  the  surroundings  and  culture 
with  which  the  Romans  were  in  contact  in  early  days. 
The  great  power  and  wealth  of  the  Greek  states  of 
Italy  must  not  he  overlooked  in  the  matter  of  influence, 
nor  the  fact  that  during  nearly  five  hundred  years 
of  Roman  history  (750-275  B.  C.)  they  were  of  much 
greater  importance  in  Italian  history  than  Rome  itself ; 
but  they  were  not  geographically  or  otherwise  in  direct 
relations  with  this  state,  and  their  influence  must  be 
conceived  rather  as  indirect  through  the  Etruscans  and 
the  Samnites,*  as  explained  for  these  peoi^les. 

The  main  apparent  fact  in  early  Roman  character  is 
its  practical,  honest,  and  logical  nature ; averse  to 
luxury,  and  antagonistic  in  its  strictly  political  and 
military  tendencies  to  the  more  artistic  and  highly 
developed  peoples  of  the  Peninsula.  Roman  art  was 
mainly  conspicuous  by  its  absence  in  early  centuries  of 
the  monarchy  and  republic ; if  we  conceive  the  word 
“ art  ” as  relating  to  the  decorative  and  luxurious  sides  of 
domestic  or  of  national  life.  Statues  and  temples  of 
the  gods  there  were,  arms  and  weapons  for  the  soldier, 

* Much  less  is  known  of  this  people  in  the  way  of  remains  than  of  the 
Etruscans.  Greek  influences  were  paramount  as  far  as  we  know  their  art. 

79 


30 


EOMAX  AXD  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


implements  and  tools  for  the  farmer,  houses  and  clothes 
and  utensils  for  rich  and  poor ; and  most  of  these  things, 
according  to  the  practice  of  all  ancient  nations,  must 
have  had  some  fitting  artistic  setting  forth  and  decora- 
tive treatment — and  yet  rigid  economy,  stern  discipline, 
legal  exactitude,  steadfast  fortitude,  domestic  simplicity. 


Fig.  11.— The  Cloaca  Maxima,  Rome. 

and  national  self-restraint  v-ere  the  points  of  character 
most  obvious  in  the  Eomans.  There  vas  no  nation  in 
Italy  so  slightly  endowed  with  purely  artistic  tastes  and 
capacity,  and  none  so  gifted  with  the  practical  and 
common  sense  virtues. 


THE  EARLY  KOMAH  ART. 


31 


It  was  this  character  which  ensured  the  Romans  an 
ultimate  triumjjh  over  all  other  states  of  Italy  in  the 
various  contentions  and  rivalries  of  many  centuries.  They 
rose  first  as  a small  civic  community  to  an  ascendency 
over  their  own  Latin  tribe  and  territory  (750-650  B.  C.). 
This  territory  did  not  be- 
gin to  expand  outside  of 
Latium  till  the  times  of 
Philip  of  Macedon  and  of 
A.lexander  the  Great  (after 
350  B.  C.).  In  the  Samnite 
and  Etruscan  wars,*  which 
then  began,  they  rapidly 
became  masters  of  all  Italy 
between  the  Northern  Apen- 
nines and  the  Greek  colonies 
of  the  South  (290  B.  C.). 

These  latter  were  also  ab 

sorbed  into  their  political  system  after  the  wars  with 
the  Macedonian  Pyrrhus  (275  B.  C.). 

It  is  at  this  time  that  we  begin  to  form  somewhat  more 
definite  ideas  of  what  Roman  art  now  was  by  remember- 
ing what  Roman  art  became.  The  Romans  were  the 
only  conquerors  of  antiquity  who  gave  to  the  vanquished 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  victors,  f Wisdom  and 
common  sense  were  partners  of  their  generosity  here. 
Their  steps  in  this  direction  were  never,  however,  taken 
rapidly  or  suddenly.  Their  allies  and  friends,  cities  or 
individuals,  were  given  the  preference.  There  was  a 
graded  series  of  rights  and  privileges  for  both  indi- 


Eig.  12.— Tuscan  (Doric)  Capital. 
Roman  Period. 


* Samnites  and  Etruscans  were  In  alliance,  but  the  wars  are  known  in 
history  as  the  “ Samnite  Wars." 

t It  was  the  habit  of  the  Romans  never  to  ask  harder  terms  of  an  enemy 
after  the  battle  was  won,  than  they  did  before  it  began. 


32 


EOMA>J  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


viduals  and  cities,  ranging  between  full  Eoman  rights- 
and  none  at  all.  But  the  steps  were  always  being 
ascended  in  rising  order,  the  area  and  amount  of 


Fig.  13.— Roman  Glass  fkom  the  Crimea  Rritish  Museum. 

Boinan  privilege  were  always  widening  and  increasing 
and  in  Italy  itself  the  Eoman  citizenship  was  the 
right  of  every  freeman  soon  after  B.  C.  100.  The 
system  of  soldier-farmer  colonies  was  another  element  in 
the  Eomanizing  process.  Eoman  soldiers  were  not  paid 
mercenaries  in  the  time  of  the  monarchy  or  of  the  early 
republic.  They  were  citizen-farmers,  some  or  many  of 
whom  were  given  new  lands  on  the  boundaries  and  lines 
of  the  new  frontier  whenever  conquests  had  been  made. 
This  was  another  cause  and  explanation  of  the  amalga- 
mation which  took  place  between  the  conquered  peoples 
and  the  conquerors.  All  these  explanations  are  essential 


THE  EARLY  ROMAN  ART. 


33 


to  a philosophic  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
Eoman  art  became  the  Italian  and  the  Italian  art  be- 
came the  Eoman.  Thus  we  see  that  the  knowledge  of 
Etruscan  art  is  in  reality  not  only  a means  of  imagining 
what  the  early  Eoman  art  was,  but  it  is  also  a means  of 
knowing  what  the  Eoman  art  became,  viz  : that  of  Italy 
at  large. 

Bibliographa". — Mommsen's  and  lime's  histories  of 
Eome  are  the  best  (both  German,  both  translated). 


Fig.  II.— Roman  Tkiumph.^l  Arch.  North  Africa. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  DEYEEOPHEXT  OF  THE  EMPIRE. 

It  IS  ouly  tlie  nineteenth  century  which  has  been  con- 
scientious in  preserving  the  monuments  of  the  past,  but 
it  is  also  like  its  predecessors  in  not  fearing  to  pull  down 
what  has  been  done  within  a century  or  two,  a system 
which,  when  applied  for  centuries,  leaves  very  little  to 
speak  for  any.  As  it  frequently  happens  in  our  own 
time,  so  it  was  with  the  Romans.  In  the  days  of  wealth 
and  power  the  old  buildings  were  not  good  enough  or 
large  enough  to  suit  the  new  ideas  of  the  people  and 
were  replaced  by  those  whose  ruins  have  partly  come 
down  to  our  time.  Some  of  the  walls  built  by  King 
Servius  Tullius  and  the  Etruscan  drainage  acxueduct  and 
sewer  known  as  the  Cloaca  Maxima  (Fig.  11)  are  the  chief 
visible  remains  of  the  Roman  monarchy  (750-510  B.  C.). 

The  early  republic  has  been  equally  unfortunate.  The 
first  important  remains  of  Roman  construction  in  point 
of  time  are  some  of  the  aqueduct  ruins  of  the  Campagna* 
dating  about  150  B.  C. 

5 leantime,  before  this  date,  still  farther  and  more  im- 
portant revolutions,  or  evolutions,  had  befallen  the 
Roman  state.  Mistress  of  Italy  after  B.  C.  275,t  her 

* The  "svide  and  now  mainly  deserted  plains  which  surround  the  modem 
city. 

t The  Xorthern  Po  valiey  was  not  considered  a part  of  Italy  till  the  time 
ot  Ctesar  B.  C.  50.  It  was,  till  then,  Cisalpine  Gaul  (“Gaul  this  .side  the 
Alps  ”). 


34 


THE  DEVEEOPMEKT  OF  THE  EMPIRE. 


35 


power  had  become  a standiug  threat  to  that  of  the 
Phenician  Carthage  which  ruled  the  coasts  of  ISTorth 
Africa  and  Eastern  Spain,  and  the  Islands  of  Sardinia 
and  Corsica,  with  much  less  attention  to  the  well-being 
of  the  conquered  populations  than  was  displayed  by 

Eome  with  the  con- 
quered states  of  Italy. 
The  contrast  was  ap- 
parent to  the  peoples 
oppressed  by  the  Phe- 
nicians,  who  in  their 
turn  were  conscious  of 
the  hatred  which  their 
oppressions  caused. 
Both  saw  in  Borne  the 
rival  of  the  oppressor 
and  consequently  the 
champion  of  the  op- 
pressed. Hence  a 
jealousy  which  led  to 
the  wars  with  Car- 
thage (260-200  B.  C.), 
whose  ultimate  result 
was  Eoman  suprem- 
acy throughout  the 
whole  Western  Med- 
iterranean and  over 
its  shores.  This 
enormous  access  o f 

Fig.  15.— Roman  Bronze  Statuette  of  power  rOUSed  the  ieal- 

JUPITER.  From  Hungary.  Brit.  Mus. 

ousy  of  the  states  of 
the  Macedonian  Greeks  which  had  succeeded  to  Alexan- 
der’s great  Oriental  empire.  After  B.  C.  200  Eome  thus 


36 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


became  involved  in  contentions  with  the  Greek  Asiatic 
states,  and  with  the  Macedonian  rulers,  which  by  the 
time  of  Julius  Csesar  (B.  C.  50 ) had  resulted  in  turning 
all  the  countries  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean  into 
Roman  provinces. 

We  know  Julius  Ctesar  as  the  founder  of  the  later 
empire  and  Augustus  as  its  first  recognized  ruler.  Its 
territories  were  ultimately  (according  to  modern  desig- 
nations) England,  South  and  West  Germany,  Austria, 
France,  Spain,  North  Africa,  Egypt,  Syria,  Asia  3Iinor, 
European  Turkey,  Greece,  Eoumania,  and  the  Danube 


Fig.  16.— Roman  Aqueduct  in  Southern  France.  Nimes. 

countries.  Southern  Hungary,  and,  of  course,  Italy.  As  re- 
gards the  art  of  the  Roman  Empire,  which,  as  already  ex- 
plained, is  mainly  the  only  art  of  the  Romans  known  now 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OP  THE  EMPIRE.  37 


to  US,  we  must  insist 
on  the  process  accom- 
plished through  its 
history,  which  corre- 
sponds to  that  already 
explained  for  the  Eo- 
mans  of  Italy  and  the 
Italians  conquered  by 
Eome.  The  same 
facts,  on  a broader 
scale,  hold  for  all  the 
territories  above 
named  but  with  one 
grand  distinction  be- 
tween the  eastern  and 
the  western  halves  of 
the  empire.  The  East 
had  a civilization  long 
antedating  that  of  the 
Eomans,  but  affiliated 
with  it,  not  only  bj^ 
correspondence  of  de- 
rivation and  charac- 
ter, bnt  also  by  a long 
series  of  transmissions 
and  expansions  to  and 
over  Italy  herself  (see 
the  chapter  on  Etrus- 
can art).  The  art  of 

the  whole  Eastern  Pm.  17.— Roman  bronze  statuette  found 

IN  England,  a Military  Officer. 
Mediterranean  was  British  Jiuseum. 

Greek  or  Grecianized  since  Alexander.* 

* Always  excepting  Egypt,  which  mainly  continued  to  exhibit  her  own 
independent  style  under  Greek  kings  and  Roman  emperors. 


38 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


In  Africa  the  Eomans  succeeded  to  the  heritage  of 
Carthaginian  civilization  which  had  become  itself  much 
Grecianized.  In  Spain  the  Eomans  succeeded  to  the 
heritage  of  the  Phenicians  and  the  Greeks.*  In  France 
they  succeeded  to  the  heritage  of  Phenician  and  Greek 
influences  t — and  yet  in  all  these  countries  they  were 


Fig.  18.— Ro3Iax  Gateway  in  Germany.  Trier. 

themselves  largely  the  founders  and  fathers  of  later  civ- 
ilization, and  for  England,  Northern  France,  and  TTest 
and  South  Germany,  they  were  almost  entirely  so. 

The  distinction  then  between  the  eastern  and  west- 
ern parts  of  the  empire  is  that  very  largely  in  the  AVest 
the  Eomans  were  the  propagators  and  pioneers,  while  in 
the  East  they  were  the  heirs  and  the  learners.  The  case 
briefly  stated,  is  that  the  Eomans  were  the  lawyers,  the 

* VTio  had  founded  many  cities  on  the  northeast  coast, 
t There  were  many  Greek  colonies  in  Southern  France,  of  which  Mar- 
seilles was  the  most  important. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EMPIRE. 


39 


engineers,  the  systematizers,  and  the  pathfinders  of  the 
later  centuries  of  Mediterranean  history.  All  the  peo- 
ples of  the  empire  became  Koman  in  language,*  in 
governmental  systems,  and  in  rights  of  citizenship,!  and 
the  Eomans  themselves  were  transformed  into  the 
general  mass  of  the  population  which  they  had  solidified 
and  endowed  with  their  own  laws  and  culture. 

It  is  only  in  this  way  that  we  can  rightly  conceive  the 
significance  and  importance  of  Eoman  ruins  and  works 
of  art  as  found  in  England,  Spain,  France,  Germany, 
Africa,  Syria,  etc.  It  is  of  great  importance  not  to  view 


Fig.  19.— Romah  Ruixs  in  Syria.  Baalbek. 

* If  not  already  Greek ; both  languages  were  commonly  known  to  edu- 
cated people. 

t The  edict  of  Caracalla  (3d  century  B.  C.)  gave  the  citizenship  to  all  free- 
men. 


aedncto  rom; 


SPfiflVIA  PP.7  _VWa  general 


Fig.  20.— Roman  Aqueduct  in  Spain.  Segovia. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EMPIRE. 


41 


these  things  as  they  have  been  viewed  in  a more  elemen- 
tary stage  of  modern  studies — as  monuments  of  con- 
quest, as  exported  works  of  art,  as  relics  of  a foreign 
domination — in  a word  as  intrusive  and  as  foreign  to  the 
countries  where  they  are  found.  They  represent  on  the 
contrary,  the  native  civilization  and  the  native  art  of 
the  countries  in  which  they  were  made,  for  the  time  in 
which  they  were  made — as  the  result  not  of  military 
conquest  but  of  commerce  and  of  intercourse  working 
through  centuries.  The  power  of  the  Eoman  did  not  lie 
in  force  of  arms  but  in  the  catholic  self-abnegation  of 
the  statesmen  and  heroes  who  conceived  of  history  as  an 
evolution  of  commerce,  not  as  a carnage  of  rival  armies. 
Soldiers  and  legions  and  generals  there  were,  combats 
and  jealousies  of  interior  rival  forces,  and  selfishness — as 
always  in  history.  But  the  legions  of  the  empire  were  not 
raised  to  trample  on  the  liberties  of  Eoman  citizens,  and 
all  freemen  were  Eoman  citizens  or  so  became.  These 
legions  were  the  guardians  of  the  civilization  of  their 
day.  Their  post  was  the  frontiers  of  the  State  and  their 
indirect  mission  largely  was  to  continue  the  expansion 
of  the  domestic  arts  and  sciences  beyond  its  borders.* 
The  illustrations  have  been  chosen  through  these  im- 
mediate pages  as  symbols  of  the  diffusion  of  Eoman  civ- 
ilization under  the  conditions  just  explained.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  most  important  where  illustrations  from 
Italy  or  the  city  of  Eome  are  concerned,  to  look  at  them 
as  representing  buildings  or  objects  which  once  covered 
all  the  territories  named. 


* The  Roman  legions  were  largely  raised  in  the  countries  where  they 
habitually  served.  They  were  British,  German,  or  Gallic,  as  the  case  might 
be,  but  often  subject  to  transfer.  It  is  well  known  that  they  were  much  em- 
ployed on  the  public  works. 


42 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


The  most  marvelous  witnesses  to  the  character  of 
Eoman  civilization  are  the  Eoman  ruins  east  of  the 
Jordan  in  Syria,  where  there  are  more  Eoman  ruins 
to-day  than  in  the  entire  area  of  the  old  Eoman  world 
otherwise  considered — -the  explanation  being  simply 
that  the  Bedouin  Arabs  now  dwelling  in  this  country 
and  whose  tribes  have  had  it  in  possession  since  the 


Fig.  21.— Roman  Ruin.  East  Jordan  Territorj-. 


seventh  century  A.  D.,  live  in  tents  and  have  never 
treated  the  ruins  as  quarries  for  building  material.  It 
is  this  use  of  Eoman  ruins  as  quarries  by  the  later  popu- 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EMPIRE. 


43 


lations  of  all  other  territories  named  which  has  caused 
their  destruction  and  disappearance,  so  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  imagine  now  the  territories  of  England,  France, 
Spain,  or  North  Africa,  as  having  once  exhibited  the 
same  wonderfnl  number  of  constructions  which  the  East 
Jordan  territory  still  bears  to  view. 


CHAPTER  Y. 


GENERAI.  REVIEW  OF  THE  ROMAV  ART. 

It  was  in  tiie  second  century  B.  C.  that  growing 
wealtli  at  Rome,  vast  territorial  power,  and  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Greek  Macedonian  and  Greek  Asiatic  states 
brought  about  the  first  decided  break  with  the  old  con- 
servative traditions  and  with  the  old  Roman  indifference 
to  art  for  its  own  sake.  After  the  destruction  of  Corinth 
by  the  Roman  general  Mummius  (146  B.  C.)  enormous 
numbers  of  Greek  statues  were  carried  off  to  Rome.  A 
certain  number  of  the  famous  statues  of  the  modern 
Italian  museums  doubtless  found  their  way  to  Italy  at 
this  time.  Greek  philosophy  and  Greek  literature  were 
cultivated  with  more  and  more  attention.  It  was  above 
all  the  general  luxury,  refinement,  and  ease  of  living  in 
the  Alexandrine  states  which  made  headway  at  Rome 
and  which  involved  that  interest  in  art  which  is  often 
professed  by  the  man  of  wealth  as  a matter  of  display 
and  ostentation,  or  at  least  of  necessary  fashion.  The 
Greek  art  of  the  mother  country  was  at  this  time  itself 
in  a condition  of  relative  decadence,  not  of  productivity 
or  technical  capacity,  but  of  simplicity  of  taste  and 
grandeur  of  style.  In  sculpture  the  taste  of  the  Roman 
therefore  affected  the  realistic  tendencies  and  minute 
technical  perfection  of  the  Medici  Yenus  and  of  the 
Dying  Gaul,  of  the  Laocoon  group,  the  Belvedere  Torso, 

44 


Gkbco-Roman  Relief  from  the  Decoration  of  a Fountain. 
Lateran  Museum.  A Nymph  Feeding  the  Infant 
Plutus  from  her  Horn  of  Plenty. 


GENERAL  REVIEW  OF  THE  ROHAN  ART. 


45 


and  similar  works.*  In  the  statues  of  Greek  subjects 
which  began  to  be  made  more  and  more  in  Italy  two 


Fig.  22.— Faun.  Copy  after  Praxiteles.  Capitol,  Rome. 

tendencies  were  therefore  apparent,  either  that  minute 
and  sometimes  over-anxious  attention  to  minor  details, 
which  is  natural  to  the  taste  of  the  amateur  and  the 

* Compare  the  book  on  Greek  Art  published  for  the  Chautauqua  Circle. 


46 


KOMASr  ANB  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


dilettante,  or  else  a multiplication  of  copies  of  some 
given  type  in  the  rapid  and  mechanical  execution 
of  the  artisan  or  stone  cutter.  It  must  he  remembered 
that  most  of  the  statues  from  vhich  ve  derive  our 
knowledge  of  Greek  art  were  such  copies  made  during 
the  Eoman  imperial  period  or  in  the  time  of  the  late 
republic.  At  all  events  the  multiplication  of  the  Greek 
mythological  subjects  in  sculpture  through  all  the  west- 
ern territories  of  the  empire  was  one  result  of  its  ex- 
istence. 

In  spite  of  the  qualifications  which  a conscientious 

critic  must  make  as 
to  the  productions 
of  Eoman- Greek 
art  in  face  of  the 
Parthenon  marbles 
and  similar  works, 
an  amazing  degree 
of  real  beauty  and 
of  pure  artistic 
taste  continued  to 
assert  itself  in  these 
later  days.  This 
is  especially  ap- 
parent in  the  col- 
lections of  the 
Xaples  Museum, 
which  coming  so 
largely  from  two 
excavated  towns  of 
the  first  century 
A.  D.  (Herculaneum  and  Pompeii),  are  a fair  test  of  the 
taste  of  Southern  Italy  at  this  time.  Both  of  these 


GENERAL  REVIEW  OF  THE  ROMAN  ART. 


47 


places,  it  must  however  be  remembered,  had  been  Greek 


colonies  originally. 

It  must  be  said  in  general  that  the  Eoman  imperial 
art  was  most  success- 
ful in  the  jmrest  sense 
when  it  was  least  pre- 
tentious and  least 
ostentati  o u s . The 
small  bronze  statu- 
ettes of  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum  are  ex- 
amples of  this  point. 

In  decorative  art, 
whether  of  utensils 
and  furniture,  or  the 
sculptured  carving  of 
public  buildings,  or 
the  painted  frescoes 
of  ordinary  domestic 
houses,  the  highest 
perfection  of  taste  was 
displayed.  The 
painted  frescoes  of  the 
Pompeiian  houses  in 
the  Naples  Museum 
are  an  inexhaustible 
mine  of  vigorous  de- 
sign and  beautiful 
conception,  but  al- 
ways of  a playful  and 
sportive  rather  than  of  a serious  taste. 

A characteristic  and  native  expression  was  found  in 
the  Eoman  portrait  sculpture.  The  art  of  portraiture 


Fig.  24.— Bronze  Statuette. 

Naples. 


Venus. 


48 


EOMAN  a:n*d  medieval  aet. 


was  not  affected  by  tbe  Greeks,  whose  sculpture  was 
originally  devoted  to  religious  purposes,  and  rarely 
abandoned  its  traditions  on  this  point,  but  the  practical, 
businesslike  and  common  sense  nature  of  the  Eoman 
found  its  own  peculiar  expression  in  portrait  scnljiture, 
and  achieved  its  best  original  work  in  this  department. 

It  is  esiiecially,  however,  in  architecture  that  the 
independent  greatness  of  the  Eoman  was  apparent.  In 
this  practical  and  necessary  art  he  has  left  astounding 
evidences  of  his  boldness,  firmness,  and  grandeur  of 
character,  and  also  of  his  attention  to  the  material  com- 
fort and  healthful  lives  of  large  masses  of  city  popu- 
lation. 


CHAPTER  YI. 


EOMAlsr  AKCHITECTUEE  AND  PAINTING. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Etruscan  and  early  Roman 
temples  were  copies  of  the  Greek,  and  this  naturally 
holds  of  the  temples  of  the  empire.  The  only  temple 
of  Greek  style  throughout  the  territory  of  the  Roman 
world  which  has  been  perfectly  preserved  (but  in  the  ex- 
terior only)  is  the  one  at  Nimes  in  Southern  France,  which 
is  there  traditionally  known  as  the  Maison  Carree  (the 
“square  house  ”).  The  charm  of  this  building  (first  or 
second  century  A.  D. ) is  indescribable  to  those  who  have 
not  seen  it  and  eludes  a photograph.  Its  beauty  lies  in 
the  optical  mystifications  caused  by  various  slight  inten- 
tional irregularities  of  construction  similar  to  those 
found  in  the  Greek  temples.  The  origin  of  the  town  of 
Rimes  in  a settlement  of  Alexandrine  Greeks  (the 
Greeks  were  otherwise  largely  settled  in  Southern 
France)  may  be  one  explanation  of  the  artistic  beauty  of 
this  building. 

In  Rome  itself  the  best  preserved  temple  of  Greek 
style  is  the  small  Ionic  temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis.  The 
temple  built  in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Antoninus  and  his 
wife  Faustina,  by  Marcus  Aurelius  (second  century 
A.  D.)  has  lost  its  roof  and  pediment  and  is  now  sur- 
mounted by  a Christian  church.  The  sites  of  several 
other  magnificent  temples  of  the  city  are  marked  by 

49 


.50 


liOSIAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


isolated  groups  of  columus.  In  Italy  at  large,  the  most 
important  surviving  temple  buildings  are  those  at  Assisi 
and  at  Pola.  The  little  temple  at  Tivoli  near  Eome  and 
the  small  temple  of  Yesta  in  the  city  are  picturesque 


Fig.  25.— The  “ Maisoh  Cakk^e.”  Nlmes. 

ruins  of  circular  shrines  in  fair  preservation.  A few 
columns  at  Athens  mark  the  site  of  the  colossal  temple 
of  the  Olympian  Jupiter  built  by  Hadrian  (second  cen- 
tury A.  D.).  The  most  magnificent  temple  ruins  of  the 
whole  Eoman  world  for  size  and  also  for  the  colossal 
dimensions  of  the  building  blocks  are  those  of  Baalbek 
in  Syria,  a day’s  journey  noi’th  of  the  road  between 
Beyrout  and  Damascus  (second  century  A.  D.).  The 
East  Jordan  territory  is  full  of  the  ruins  of  Eoman 
temples.  Among  these  the  one  at  Jerash  (Gerasa)  has 
the  most  imposing  dimensions. 


i*S»f 


Architectukal  Frieze  Detail.  Lateean  Museitji. 
From  Trajan’s  Forum. 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  AND  PAINTING. 


51 


A comparison  of  these  various  buildings  with  the  cor- 
responding ruins  of  old  Greek  time  shows  them  to  be  of 
less  refinement  in  the  masonry  fitting  and  cutting  and 
far  less  carefully  elaborated  in  the  details  of  construc- 
tion.* A frequent  departure  from  the  beautiful  Greek 
plan  with  the  surrounding  colonnade  is  found  in  the 
limitation  of  the  Eoman  temple  portico  to  the  front, 
while  the  sides  and  rear  are  walls  with  ‘‘engaged” 
columns ; semi- attached,  that  is,  to  the  wall  surface,  so 
as  to  simulate  a portico. 

Departures  from  the  old  Greek  refinement  are  also 
illustrated  in  the  occasional  abandonment  of  the  curving 
outlines  of  the  column  and  of  its  flutings,  one  or  both. 

An  important  dis- 
tinction lies  in  the  use 
by  the  old  Doric 
Greek  temples  of  col- 
ored surface  orna- 
ment. These  later 
buildings  on  the  other 
hand,  depend  on  a 
florid  and  elaborate 
but  boldly  p i c tu  r - 
esque  execution  of 
projected  carving. 

The  prevailing  “ Or- 
der ” is  the  Corinthian.  The  Ionic  Order,  when  found,  is 
of  relatively  inferior  quality  as  regards  the  grace  and 
refinement  of  the  capitals  and  other  details.  There  is 
no  temple  now  known  of  the  Roman  period  which 
employed  the  Doric  or  Tuscan  Order.  The  dominance 

* Notwithstanding  its  picturesque  charm  the  materials  and  masonry  de- 
tails of  the  Maison  Carree  cannot  be  compared  with  those  of  the  Parthenon. 


52 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


Pig.  27.— Temple  of  Antoninus  and 
Fau.stina.  Rome. 


of  the  Coriuthian  Or- 
der in  Eoman  monu- 
ments is,  of  course, 
explained  by  the  fact 
that  it  was  the  favored 
and  characteristic  Or- 
der of  the  Alexan- 
drine Greeks.  The 
capital  known  as 
'‘Composite”  which 
was  much  used  by 
the  Eomans,  has  mod- 
ified Ionic  volutes  at  the  top  but  otherwise  shows  the 
usual  acanthus  leaves.  (Fig.  29.) 

In  buildings  which  employed  the  arch  and  dome,  the 
Eomans  showed  their 
own  characteristic 
boldness  and  force. 

Constructions  like  the 
aqueducts,  which 
made  no  pretensions 
to  artistic  character 
are  fine  examples  of 
the  powerful  artistic 
effect  of  rough  ma- 
sonry in  elementary 
forms  of  construction. 

Aside  from  many 
ruins  on  the  Cam- 
pagna  near  Eome,  and 
of  far  superior  effect, 
the  great  aqueducts  of 
Segovia  in  Spain  and  28.— temple  of  Minerva.  Assist. 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  AND  PAINTING. 


53 


of  Nimes  in  France  (the  Pont  du  Gard)  deserve  pre- 
eminent mention.  These  aqueducts  are  an  instance  of 
the  attention  paid  to  the  material  comfort  and  hygiene 
of  great  cities  which  put  our  modern  civilization  to  the 
blush.  The  city  of  Eome  is  now  abundantly  supplied 
with  water  by  three  out  of  its  original  fourteen  aque- 
ducts, and  the  city  of 
Bologna  now  obtains 
its  water  through  a 
restoration  of  its 
ancient  aqueduct.  It 
is  said  that  hundreds 
of  provincial  Eoman 
cities  were  more 
abundantly  supplied 
with  water  than  is  the 
modern  city  of  Lon- 
don. 

This  abundance  of 
the  water  supply  in 
Eoman  cities  was  con- 
nected with  a system 
of  public  baths  of 
great  magnificence  and  great  utility.  The  baths  were 
also  clubhouses  for  the  people,  which  contained  lounging 
and  reading  rooms,  libraries,  and  gymnasiums.  Large 
numbers  of  the  statues  of  the  modern  Eoman  collections 
were  found  in  their  ruins,  showing  that  they  were  also 
museums  and  galleries  of  art.  Outside  of  Eome  the 
recently  excavated  ruins  at  Bath  in  England  are  the 
most  important  remains  of  this  class  of  building.  In 
Eome  the  ruins  of  the  Baths  of  Caracalla  are  now  the 
most  imposing  and  originally  accommodated  sixteen 


54 


EOMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


thousand  bathers.  The  statues  now  in  Xaples  which  be- 
longed to  the  Farnese  collection,  like  the  Farnese  Her- 
cules, Farnese  Bull  Group,  etc.,  were  found  in  the  Baths 
of  Caracalla.  The  Baths  of  Diocletian  are  next  in  order 
of  present  importance  and  were  partly  turned  into  a 


Fig.  30.— Ruined  Apartment  in  the  Baths  of  Caracalla. 


Christian  church  by  Michael  Angelo.  The  Baths  of 
Titus  were  in  fair  preservation  in  the  time  of  Eaphael 
and  his  decorative  designs  in  the  Vatican  Palace  were 


EOMAN  ARGHITECTUEE  AND  PAINTING. 


55 


borrowed  from  them  (the  Loggie  frescoes).  Here  was 
found  the  Laocoon  Group  of  the  Vatican.  The  Bath  at 
Pompeii  is  a perfectly  preserved  structure  showing  all 
arrangements  of  the  antique  system  for  steam  and  hot 
baths,  plunges,  etc.,  and  the  various  refinements  which 
were  handed  down  to  the  Eussians  and  the  Turks  from 
the  Eoman  Byzantine  system  and  which  are  now  known 
and  practiced  under  foreign  names.  The  one  ancient 
Eoman  building  o f 
the  whole  Eoman 
world  now  in  fair 
preservation,  both  in- 
side and  out,  is  the 
great  dome  structure 
at  Eome  known  as 
the  Pantheon.  Al- 
though this  building 
was  dedicated  after 
completion  to  the 
gods  of  the  conquered 
nations,  it  is  thought  to  have  been  first  designed  as  a 
part  of  the  Baths  of  Agrippa,  and  it  is  an  example  of 
the  great  dome  interiors  which  were  distinctive  for  this 
class  of  building  (begun  26  B.  C.). 

The  basilicas  were  great  halls  assigned  to  the  use  of  the 
merchants  and  of  the  courts  of  justice  and  were  found  in 
every  city.  The  Basilica  of  Constantine  at  Eome  is  the 
most  notable  ruin  of  this  class  as  regards  present  di- 
mension. The  broken  stumps  of  the  columns  of  Trajan’s 
Basilica  show  that  this  building  covered  a larger  area. 

For  Eoman  palaces  the  most  interesting  ruin  is  that  of 
Diocletian’s  palace  at  Spalatro  in  Dalmatia  (fourth  cen- 
tury A.  D.). 


Fig.  31.— The  Pantheon.  Eome. 


56 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


The  triumphal  arches  were  memorials  of  victory  and 
successful  wars,  under  which  the  processions  of  triumph 
took  their  way.  There  are  various  ruins  of  this  class  in 
Italy  and  elsewhere,  the  most  important  being  those  of 
Eome — the  Arches  of  Constantine,  of  Septimius  Severus, 
and  of  Titus. 

The  most  imposing  of  all  Roman  constructions  were 
the  enormous  amphitheaters  built  for  the  spectacles  of 
the  gladiatorial  combats,  and  the  fights  of  wild  animals. 


Fig.  32.— The  Basilica  of  Coxstantine.  Rome. 

Next  to  the  Colosseum  at  Rome,  begun  by  Vespasian  and 
completed  by  Titus  (SO  A.  D.),  the  most  splendid  ruins  of 
this  class  are  at  Nimes  and  Arles  in  France  and  at  Verona 
in  North  Italy.  The  Colosseum  covers  more  than  seven 


EOMAN  ARCHITECTURE  AND  PAINTING. 


57 


acres  of  ground  and  accommodated  eighty  thousand 
spectators. 

In  all  these  buildings  (except  the  aqueducts)  a method 
and  style  of  ornament  were  originally  employed  * which 


Fig.  83.— Triumphal  Arch  op  Septimius  Sevekus.  Rome. 

were  revived  by  the  Italians  of  modern  history  in  the 
Eenaissance  period  a thousand  years  after  they  had 
apparently  passed  into  oblivion.  This  ornamental  style, 
now  known  as  the  Eenaissance,  has  had  so  wide  a vogue 
in  modern  architecture  that  a distinct  idea  as  to  its 
Eoman  origin  and  use  is  a really  essential  thing  for 
every  educated  person. 

* In  the  ruins  of  the  baths  and  basilicas,  which  were  built  of  brick  faced 
with  marble,  the  marble  panels  have  been  torn  away  and  the  ornamental 
system  does  not  now  appear. 


58 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


We  liave  seen  "wliat  debt  the  Eomans  owed  the  Greeks 
and  3’et  how  foreign  to  Greek  art  was  their  system  of 
arch  and  dome  construction.  To  this  arch  construction 
the  Eoman  applied  the  Greek  construction  as  an  orna- 
mental mask  and  facing.  It  is  common  to  charge  any 
use  of  “engaged”  columns*  to  the  score  of  the  Eomans 
as  a departure  from  Greek  ideas  and  usage,  and  yet  we 


Fig.  34.— The  Colosseum.  Rome. 

see  from  engravings  of  the  Erechtheum  at  Athens, 
which  were  made  in  the  eighteenth  century,  that  one 
portion  of  it  was  decorated  with  “engaged”  columns. 
The  same  use  appears  in  the  Choragic  ^Monument  of 
Lysicrates  at  Athens.  These  instances  in  Greek  sur- 


* Columns  used,  not  for  actual  porticoes,  but  for  surface  wall  ornaments. 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  AND  PAINTING. 


59 


vivals  make  it  practically  certain  that  the  system  passed 
into  Italy  through  the  Alexandrine  Greeks.  It  is  not  a 
use  of  the  columnar  form  to  be  commended  in  theory,  as 
it  violates  constructional  truth  and  its  occasional  appear- 
ance in  Greek  monuments  of  the  later  period  only  shows, 
what  we  otherwise  know,  that  a relative  decline  of  taste 
rapidly  followed  the  completion  of  the  Parthenon. 

In  Eoman  art  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  results 
of  using  the  ‘‘engaged”  columns  were  picturesque  and 
the  contrasts  of  line  harmonious.  It  is  a difficult  matter 
to  pass  judgment  upon  critically,  without  on  the  one 
hand,  yielding  a point  which  is  very  much  to  be  empha- 
sized, viz  : the  desirability  of  constructional  truth  in 
building  ; or,  on  the  other  hand,  committing  the  absur- 
dity of  condemning  wholesale  some  of  the  finest  archi- 
tectural monuments  of  the  world.  The  easiest  way  out 
of  the  difficulty  is  to  treat  the  matter  historically. 
Criticism  is  for  the  present ; history  is  for  the  past. 

In  the  Eoman  ornamental  system  we  observe  first  the 
use  of  the  “engaged”  column  as  found  in  temples,  that 
is,  as  a simulated  portico  (Figs.  25  and  26).  It  appears 
again  in  arch  constructions  as  an  ornamental  framework 
supporting  simulated  entablatures.  These  entablatures 
are  frequently  seen  jutting  forward  so  as  to  correspond 
with  the  projecting  surface  of  the  columns  (Fig.  3.3).  In 
late  imperial  art  as  in  the  Eenaissance  decadence  these 
breaks  were  inordinately  multiplied  and  exaggerated. 
Finally  the  system  of  gables,  pointed  or  rounded  or 
broken  at  the  center  to  surmount  niches,  doors,  and 
windows  is  an  obvious  adaptation  of  the  shape  of  the 
Greek  temple  pediment  to  decorative  uses  (Fig.  21). 
This  also  was  probably  first  devised  by  the  Alexandrine 
Greeks,  as  there  are  signs  of  its  former  use  on  the  Tower 


60 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


of  the  Winds  at  Athens.  The  most  extravagant  and 
corrupt  instances  of  the  gable  ornament  are  found  in  the 
late  Eoman  buildings  of  Syria  ; at  Palmyra,  in  the  East 
Jordan  country  and  in  the  rock  tombs  of  Petra  (north 
of  the  Sinai  Peninsula). 

The  domestic  architecture  of  the  Eoman  period  is  best 
known  to  us  through  the  buried  town  of  Pompeii,  near 
Naples.  The  ashes  of  Vesuvius,  whose  volcanic  erup- 
tion in  the  year  79  A.  D.  buried  this  town,  have  pre- 
served its  dwelling  houses  until  the  excavations  of  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries,  in  marvelous  con- 
dition. The  town  was  a small  provincial  one,  and 
though  it  was  apparently  much  affected  by  the  Eomans 
as  a pleasure  resort  and  watering  place,  the  buildings 


Fig.  35.— Court  of  a Pompeiiax  House. 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  AND  PAINTING, 


61 


certainly  cannot  have  compared  in  dimension  or  height 
with  those  of  Eome,  where  we  know  that  houses  of  six 
stories  were  found.  None  in  Pompeii  are  more  than  two 
stories  high,  and  it  is 
only  in  one  or  two 
cases  that  the  second 
story  has  been  pre- 
served owing  to  the 
rotting  of  the  timber 
beams  and  the  pres- 
sure of  the  superin- 
cumbent volcanic 
ashes.  The  general 
arrangements  of  the 
ancient  dwelling 
houses  are,  however, 
well  represented. 

Like  the  domestic 
Oriental  buildings  of 
our  own  time  they 
were  absolutely  un- 
pretentious in  e X - 
terior  appearance  and  with  few  windows  opening  on  the 
streets.  Each  house  was  built  about  a court  or  a series 
of  courts  on  which  the  small  apartments  opened.  In 
many  cases  the  street  front  was  devoted  to  shops,  discon- 
nected with  the  house  and  separately  rented. 

The  great  interest  of  the  Pompeiian  houses  lies  in 
their  painted  decorations,  not  only  on  account  of  their 
beauty  but  also  because  they  were  the  work  of  ordinary 
artisans  and  illustrate  the  artistic  capacities  of  common 
workmen  of  that  day.  Most  of  the  important  frescoes 
have  been  moved  to  the  Naples  Museum.  They  lose  a 


Fig.  36.— Pompeiian  Floor  Mosaic. 
“ Beware  of  the  Dog.”  Naples  Mus. 


62 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


certain  portion  of  their  brilliancy  soon  after  excavation, 
bnt  the  colors  are  still  warm  in  effect  and  many  are  even 
bright.  The  pictures  themselves  are  in  many  cases 
copies  of  more  important  ones  by  superior  artists,  which 


Fig.  37.— Pojipeiian  Wall,  PAI^TING.  Naples  Museum. 

have  been  destroyed,  and  represent  nearly  all  that  we 
know,  by  survivals,  of  the  earlier  Greek  painting.  A 
number  of  very  beautiful  frescoes  have,  however,  also 
been  found  in  Eome. 

The  execution  of  these  pictures  was  offhand  and  rapid, 
as  natural  to  plaster  decoration,  and  in  details  we  fre- 


KOMAN  ARCHITECTURE  AND  PAINTING. 


63 


quently  find  tlie  slips  and  carelessness  of  rapid  artisan 
work — on  the  other  hand  they  bespeak  an  amazing  fer- 
tility of  invention  and  capacity  for  rapid  execution  of 
the  most  beautiful  motives  and  poses.  The  subjects  of 


Fig,  38.— Pompeiian  Wai,!.  Painting.  Naples  Museum. 

these  paintings  correspond  to  the  taste  of  the  later 
periods  of  Greek  art  for  playful  and  amatory  themes 
drawn  from  Greek  mythology,  although  there  are  other - 
and  many  scenes  from  daily  antique  life  and  its  sur- 
roundings. Many  of  them  are  in  large  or  life-size  dimen- 


64 


EOMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


sions.  On  the  plastered  surfaces  color  was  universally 
employed  where  no  pictures  are  found.  The  warm  dull 
red  known  as  ‘‘Pompeiian  red”  and  orange  yellow  were 
much  used.  The  columns  of  the  porticoes,  which  uni- 
versally enclose  the  interior  courts,  were  stuccoed  and 
painted  in  the  same  bright  colors,  red  and  yellow. 

In  the  more  important  houses,  bright  mosaic  pictures 

made  of  small  cubes  of  colored  glass  or  variously  colored 

small  cubes  of  stone  are  frequently  found.  Some  were 

used  for  floor  decorations,  others  for  niches  or  small  wall 

pictures.  The  most  important  of  these,  and  the  most 

important  survival  of 

ancient  pictorial  art, 

is  the  large  floor 

mosaic  now  in  the 

Naples  Museum, 

which  represents  the 

Battle  of  Issus,  the 

victory  of  Alexander 

the  Great  over  the 

Persian  king,  Darius. 

Fig  39.— Roman  Mosaic.  The  Drinking  Among  the  freSCOeS 
Doves.  Capitol,  Rome . 

Eome,  the  small  painting  now  in  the  Vatican,  knowm  as 
the  “ Aldobrandini  "Wedding  ” from  the  modern  villa  on 
whose  grounds  it  was  discovered,  is  the  most  famous. 
Some  other  remarkable  cases  of  landscape  painting  have 
been  found  in  Eome  in  recent  years.  The  mosaic  in  the 
Capitol  Museum  of  the  Drinking  Doves  also  deserves 
especial  mention.  Beautiful  mosaic  floorings  have  been 
found  in  many  of  the  territories  which  the  empire 
embraced — many  in  England,  many  in  North  Africa, 
etc.  A number  of  these  are  in  the  British  Museum. 


I{()SIAN  roUTUAIT  lUlS'l'S.  ('Al’ITOI,  MUSICITM. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


HOMAN  DECORATIVE  ART  AND  SCUEPTURE. 

Again  starting  from  Pompeii  as  the  main  center  of 
such  finds,  we  have  to  mention  the  wealth  of  utensils 
and  furniture  of  daily  life  which  is  in  the  I^aples 
Museum.  Naturally  it  is  the  bronzes  and  metals  which 
have  survived.  Nothing  is  left  of  the  luxurious  uphol- 
stery and  wooden  furniture  which  the  paintings  illus- 
trate. In  the  bronze  vases,  tripods,  lamps,  and  utensils 
of  the  Naples  Museum  we  again  learn  how  much  taste 
and  fine  art  adorned  the  lives  of  the  everyday  people  of 
iantiquity.  Constant  variety  of  invention  and  origi- 
nality of  designs  are  united  with  constant  attention  to 
use  and  structural  form.  The  ornament  emphasizes  and 
develops  the  construction.  In  the  pitcher-shaped  vases 
it  is,  for  instance,  the  handle  itself  which  forms  the 
ornamental  motive  or  else  it  is  the  joints  of  its  attach- 
ment. In  the  tripods,  tables,  and  settees  the  feet  and 
legs  and  joints  are  the  points  or  lines  of  the  ornament. 
These  various  objects  again  illustrate  the  way  in  which 
Greek  art  had  permeated  the  life  of  Italy  and  its  de- 
pendent provinces  and,  with  slight  distinctions  as  to 
style,  would  equally  well  illustrate  the  art  of  the  centu- 
ries before  and  after  the  time  of  the  Pompeiian  pieces. 
The  bronze  weights  finely  executed  in  the  shape  of 
human  heads  are  an  instance  of  the  fertile  devices  for 
combining  use  with  beauty. 


65 


66 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


Utensils  similar  to  those  of  Pompeii  have  been  other- 
wise most  largely  found  in  Etruscan  tombs,  but  this 
simply  means  that,  for  reasons  unknown  to  us,  the 
fashions  of  interment  among  the  Greeks  themselves 
chose  other  objects  for  the  burials.  Aside  from  burial 
finds  it  is  a rare  occurence  that  such  objects  have  been 
found  outside  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum.*  A unique 


Fig.  40.— Pojipeiian  .Street,  as  Exc.wated. 

discovery  was  made,  however,  near  Hildesheim  in  Ger- 
many, in  1869,  of  nearly  a hundred  pieces  of  the  elab- 
orately decorated  silver  table  service  of  a Eoman  oflQ.cer 
or  general.  It  is  supposed  to  date  from  the  defeat  of 

» Herculaneum  is  a closely  adjacent  ancient  city  but  it  was  covered  witli 
lava,  not  with  ashes.  Almost  nothing  has  been  done  here  in  excavation 
since  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of 
mining  through  this  lava  deposit. 


EOilAN  BECORATIYE  ART  AND  SCULRTURE. 


67 


the  Eoman  legions  under  Yarns,  near  this  place,  in  the 
year  9 A.  D.  This  find  is  in  the  Berlin  Museum. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  objects  among  all  those 
found  at  Pompeii  are  the  carpenter’s  and  workman’s 
tools,  medical  instruments,  gardening  implements,  etc. 
Although  these  do  not  come  under  the  head  of  art,  they 
have  an  equal  or  greater  value  in  stimulating  the 
imagination  to  resurrect  the  life  of  the  ancients  and  it  is 
solely  for  this  purpose  that  we  study  their  art.  Their 
forms  are  largely  the  types  of  those  in  use  to-day. 

Decorated  pottery 
like  that  of  the  Greek 
vases  (Fig.  9)  was  not 
used  after  the  second 
century  B.  C.,  and  is 
consequently  not  found 
at  Pompeii.  The  pot- 
tery of  the  Eoman 
period,  found  in  all 
countries  of  the  em- 
pire, was  the  so-called 
“Samian”  (aside  from 
the  coarser  and  ordi- 
nary ware).  This  fig.  4i.—poMPEirAN  bronze  lamps. 
Samian  ware  is  of  a Naples  Museum . 

fine  red  paste  decorated  with  molded  or  pressed  designs, 
but  it  has  no  great  artistic  value. 

The  use  of  the  finer  early  Greek  pottery  was  displaced 
largely  by  glass,  which  was  not  very  familiar  to  the 
Greeks  of  the  fifth  century  B.  0.  Glass  manufacture 
was  an  Oriental  and  especially  an  Egyptian  art  which 
spread  to  the  Phenicians  and  was  much  cultivated  in 
Syria.  Here  were  many  of  the  important  factories 


68 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


throughout  the  time  of  the  empire  and  even  in  the 
early  Middle  Ages.  Glass  manufacture  was  independ- 
ently cultivated  in  all  territories  of  the  empire  also, 
and  its  forms  and  colors  rival  those  of  the  modern 
Venetian  glass,  which  is  a traditional  survival  of  this 
ancient  art  (Fig.  13).*  It  was  a favored  article  for 
the  interments  and  many  beautiful  specimens  have  thus 
survived.  The  “Portland  Vase”  of  the  British  Mu- 


Fig.  42.— Pompeiian  Weights.  Naples  Museum. 

seum  is  the  most  celebrated  instance.  The  finest  single 
collection  of  ancient  glass  is  the  Slade  Collection  of  the 
British  Musenm,  but  the  Aew  York  Museum  possesses 

* Venice  is  a direct  connecting  link  with  antiquity,  having  been 
founded  in  the  fifth  centurs'  A.  D.  It  preserved  its  autonomy  until  the 
times  of  Bonaparte. 


EOMAN  DECORATIVE  ART  AND  SCULPTURE.  69 


the  best  collection  of  the  whole  world,  next  to  this.* 
We  may  finally  return  to  the  Roman  sculpture  to  ob- 
serve that  the  reputation  of  individual  busts  or  statues 
is  rather  owing  to  the  fame  of  the  personalities  repre- 
sented, among  whom  nearly  all  the  great  Roman  states- 
men and  emperors  are  included,  than  to  special  distinc- 


Fig.  43.— a Poet  holding  a Tragic  Theatrical  Mask,  and 
A Muse.  Relief.  Lateran,  Rome. 

tion  in  workmanship.  The  merit  of  the  execution  and 
the  obvious  fidelity  to  nature  are  marvelously  uniform 
and  marvelously  good.  The  largest  collections  are 
naturally  in  Rome  and  Naples,  and  the  Louvre  at  Paris 
stands  next  in  this  department.  The  most  interesting 

* Its  best  pieces  belong  to  the  scries  gathered  by  the  Parisian  expert 
Charvet,  but  there  is  also  an  enormous  collection  of  Roman  glass  from 
Cyprus. 


70 


EOMAX  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


portraits  are  those  of  poor  jieople  made  by  ordinary 
artisans,  because  they  best  exhibit  the  talent  of  the 
people  at  large  rather  than  that  of  some  artist  employed 
by  a person  of  distinction. 

The  grand  point,  in  fact,  which  distinguishes  ancient 
art  from  modern  is  the  surpassing  excellence  of  the 

ordinary  popular  art 
— and  this  excellence 
is  not  onlj'  mechanical 
and  technical  but  also 
that  of  observation,  of 
patient  labor,  of  sim- 
plicity, and  of  the 
ability  to  distinguish 
the  thing  which  is 
characteristic  and  es- 
sential from  that 
which  is  transient  and 
unimportant. 

Although  the  study 
of  original  Greek  art 
is  so  largely  made 
through  Eoman  copies 
that  we  may  feel  dis- 
posed to  hurry  over 
this  portion  of  the 
subject  when  the  Eo- 
man period  itself  is 
in  question — we  must 
still  say,  after  all 
Fig.  41.— Broxze  st.atue  of  dkusus.  necessarv  distinctions 

Naples  Museum.  - 

have  been  drawn  re- 
garding the  superior  merit  of  earlier  Greek  works  and 


EOMAiST  DECOEATIYE  ART  AND  SCUEPTUEE.  71 


the  various  signs  of  relative  decadence  in  the  times  of 
the  empire ; that  the  statuary  and  relief  art  of  Roman 
antiquity  in  its  minor  works,  in  its  artisan  copies,  in  its 


Fig.  45.— Roman  Portrait  Busts.  Capitol,  Rome. 


popular  productions,  is  a most  marvelous  instance  of  the 
possibilities  and  true  greatness  of  the  average  man 
under  favorable  conditions. 

How  favorable  these  conditions  were  to  the  art  of 
sculpture  we  must  not,  however,  forget.  The  enormous 
amount  of  work  done  was  one  main  condition  of  its 
technical  excellence.  This  again  is  explained  by  a large 
popular  demand. 

In  spite  of  the  inroads  of  skepticism  and  the  weaken- 
ing influence  of  philosophy  the  mythology  of  the 
Greeks,  as  adopted  by  the  Romans,  retained  a vital 


72 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


hold  on  the  popular  consciousness  as  late  as  the  third 
century  A.  D.  The  ancient  Greek  method  of  personify- 
ing abstract  ideas,  virtues,  and  moral  lessons,  in  the 
guise  of  bodily  forms  continued  till  this  time.  An  en- 
tire series  of  subjects  of  legendary  art  was  employed 
in  the  relief  decoration  of  the  sarcophagi.  The  open- 

air  life  of  antiquity, 
the  interest  in  monu- 
mental  decoration, 
and  the  public  at- 
tention to  public  art 
made  much  patronage 
for  the  ordinary  arti- 
san and  promoted  the 
education  of  other  and 
superior  artists.  On 
the  whole,  in  insisting 
on  the  value  of  Eo- 
man  statuary  copies 
for  a study  of  the 
earlier  Greeks,  w e 
must  not  overlook  the 
significance  of  these 
statuary  works  for  the 
empire  itself. 

For  the  compre- 
hension of  all  art  be- 
fore the  invention  of 
printing  and  the  con- 
sequent diffusion  of 
books  we  cannot  in- 


Fig. 46.— Bust  op  the  Emperor  Titus. 
Naples  Museum. 


sist  too  much  on  the 
point  that  books  and 


EOMAIV  DECORATIVE  ART  AND  SCUI>FTURE. 


73 


printing  have  taken 
the  place  which  art 
once  took.  It  was  not 
only  the  means  of 
monumental  record 
but  also  of  popular 
instruction  and  of 
popular  amusement. 

We  should  never 
dream  of  studying  the 
daily  life  of  the  nine- 
teenth  century 
through  its  painting 
and  its  sculpture,  but 
this  is  our  main 
authority  and  our, 
necessary  authority 
for  the  daily  life  of 
antiquity.  The  greatest  importance  consequently  at- 
taches to  the  minutest  and  apparently  most  trivial 
objects  of  Koman  art,  because  they  are  most  significant 
for  this  daily  life  and  most  characteristic  for  the  taste  of 
everyday  people.  It  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  the 
Eoman  engraved  gems  used  in  the  signet  rings  are  inter- 
esting. A wealth  of  beauty  and  of  artistic  adaptation  of 
means  to  ends  is  apparent  in  these  little  objects  (Fig.  48). 


I'Tg.  47. — Sleeping  Faun.  Bronze  from 
Herculaneum.  Naples. 


Fig.  48.— Casts  from  Roman  Signet  Gems.  British  Museum. 


CHAPTEE  YIII. 

THE  EOHAX  DECADENCE. 

The  great  service  of  the  Eoman  Empire  to  the  nations 
of  Western  Europe  was  ultimately  its  own  great  weak- 
ness. It  had  brought  the  Gauls,  the  British,  the  Span- 
iards, and  the  West  and  South  Germans  within  the  pale 
of  civilization,  but  it  could  not  leaven  so  large  a mass  of 
population  with  its  own  culture  without  sutfering  a cor- 
responding loss  of  vitality  and  without  sacrificing  the 
standards  of  perfection  in  literature,  in  art,  and  in  pub- 
lic taste,  which  it  had  either  inherited  or  transferred 
from  the  older  Greek  culture  of  the  Eastern  "Mediter- 
ranean. 

The  history  of  the  beginnings  of  the  empire  and  its 
art  is  not  a history  of  evolution  or  development  (outside 
of  politics)  so  much  as  it  is  a history  of  diffusion  and  of 
transfer.  The  arch  with  its  borrowed  Greek  decorative 
adjuncts  spread  from  Italy  all  over  Western  Europe 
(Fig.  18).  The  style  of  Eoman-Greek  sculpture  was 
found  in  Hungary  and  in  Britain  (Figs.  15,  17),  but 
there  was  a certain  loss  of  quality  involved  in  these 
transfers.  The  Eoman  Italian  himself  was  a borrower 
as  we  have  seen,  therefore  he  could  not  lend  too  lavishly 
to  others  without  encroaching  on  his  own  resources.  lu 
the  very  beginnings  of  the  empire  the  party  of  reaction 
against  the  policy  of  favoring  the  provincials  had  in- 

74 


THK  KOMAN  DECADENCE. 


t O 


stinctively  foreseen  these  results.  Ciesar  was  assassin- 
ated because  he  had  admitted  Gauls  and  Spaniards  to 
the  Roman  Senate.  In  this  policy  he  represented  the 
march  of  events,  but  this  march  of  events  led  to  the  de- 
cline and  downfall  of  ancient  civilization  in  one  sense, 
though  not  in  all. 

In  the  first  century  of  the  empire  we  naturally  dis- 
tinguish excellences  in  the  art  of  the  capital  city  and  of 
Italy  which  do  not  hold  of  the  Roman  art  of  Gaul  or 
of  Africa.  As  the 
provinces  became  more 
thoroughly  Roman- 
ized,  their  still  inferior 
art  and  culture  reacted 
on  the  capital  city  and 
on  Italy  at  large.  In 
the  second  century  A. 

D.  we  thus  distinguish 
a certain  decline,  for 
instance,  in  the  general 
quality  of  the  sculpture 
done  at  Rome  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the 
first  century  A.  D.  In 
the  third  century  of 
the  Christian  era  the 
decline  was  so  rapid  in 
the  art  of  ancient  sculp- 
ture that  the  close  of 
the  century  had  almost 
witnessed  the  downfall 
of  this  art,  as  regards  the  production  of  any  rei)resenta- 
tive  examples  which  could  be  quoted  beside  the  master- 


FiG.  49.— Wall  Painting.  Christ  and 
THE  Woman  OF  Samaria.  Catacomb 
of  St.  Calixtus.  Fourth  Century. 


76 


EOMAjST  and  medieval  aet. 


pieces  of  anticpiity.  In  architecture  the  same  change 
was  going  on  as  regards  the  purity  of  classic  Greek 
details  and  the  refinements  of  masonry  construction. 
The  monuments  which  would  illustrate  this  decline 
in  classic  buildings  are  mainly  lacking  in  Italy,  but 
the  fragments  which  exist  are  sufficient  testimony. 
We  might  specify,  for  instance,  the  base  Ionic  capitals 
and  the  unfluted  columns  (also  lacking  the  entasis)  of 
the  so-called  Temple  of  Saturn  in  the  Roman  Forum. 
In  the  buildings  of  the  East  Jordan  territory,  which  be- 
long mainly  to  this  time,  there  are  numerous  instances  of 
the  corruption  and  disintegration  of  classic  architecture. 

Throughout  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era  there  was  another  element  of  disintegration  of  classic 
art  involved  in  the  rise  and  rapid  spread  of  the  Christian 
religion.  The  bitter  persecutions  of  the  second  and 
third  century  are  only  a witness  to  the  large  number 
of  converts  then  existing,  and  the  action  taken  by 
the  Emperor  Constantine  at  the  opening  of  the  fourth 
century  definitely  announced  that  the  Christians  formed 
the  majority  of  his  subjects.  Although  the  emperor  was 
himself  baptized  on  his  deathbed,  it  is  clear  that  his 
earlier  action  in  placing  Christianity  under  state  pro- 
tection and  giving  it  a state  recognition,  was  based  on 
political  motives,  and  that  it  was  intended  to  secure, 
as  it  did  secure  him,  the  political  support  of  the  majority 
of  his  subjects  in  his  own  struggle  for  power  against 
his  rival,  Licinius. 

In  contrasting  this  political  recognition  of  the  Christian 
faith  in  the  fourth  century  with  the  bitter  persecutions 
which  preceded,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  Roman 
policy  was  in  general  one  of  toleration  to  all  religions, 
but  that  it  only  recognized  those  of  national  character. 


THE  ROMAN  DECADENCE. 


77' 


Sects  and  schisms  within  the  national  limit  could  not  be 
tolerated  without  sacrificing  the  national  good  will  to 
Eome  which  the  policy  of  toleration  was  intended  to 
secure.  Christianity  was  at  first  considered  a sect  or 
schism  of  the  Jews,  whose  own  faith  was  tolerated.  The 
refusal  of  the  Christians  to  do  divine  honors  to  the 
emperor,  which,  to  them  was  contrary  to  conscience,  was 
also  supposed  by  the  pagans  to  be  an  indication  of 
disloyalty  to  the  state.  The  general  tolerance  practiced 
by  the  Eomans  is  indicated  by  the  dedication  of  the 


Pig.  50.— Basii-ica  Chukch  op  the  Manger.  Bethlehem. 
Fourth  Century. 

Pantheon  to  the  gods  of  the  conquered  nations  (p.  55). 

These  explanations  may  serve  to  show  that  there 
was  no  real  break  with  Eoman  political  traditions  in- 
volved in  the  triumph  of  Christianity,  and  that  this 


78 


140MAX  AXD  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


triumph  was  a logical  continuation  of  the  idea  which  the 
Romans  had  represented  in  ancient  politics.  They  had 
represented  the  ideal  of  the  political  brotherhood  of  man 
and  the  spiritual  brotherhood  announced  by  Christianity 
was  a logical  result.  The  Romans  had  broken  down  the 
prejudices  of  national  antagonism  and  had  united  all  the 
nations  of  the  then  civilized  world  under  one  govern- 
ment. The  downfall  of  national  religions  in  favor  of 
a universal  religion  was  a counterpart  of  this  move- 
ment. 

But  the  decadence  and  absolute  downfall  of  ancient 
art  were  an  inevitable  consequence  of  the  triumph  of 
Christianity.  Ancient  temple  architecture  w'as  pagan. 
Ancient  sculpture  was  pagan  aud  ancient  painting  was 
pagan.  The  destruction  of  the  idols  and  the  temples 
was  the  first  duty  and  the  first  act  of  the  successful 
Christians.  That  the  Greek  statues  had  been  personi- 
fications of  noble  and  beautiful  ideas  was  not  so  clear  to 
the  early  Christians  as  it  is  to  us.  With  them  the 
imputation  of  idolatry  involved  the  wholesale  con- 
demnation of  the  art. 

There  was  involved  here  a double  cause  of  art  decay. 
First  and  foremost  the  art  of  sculpture  was  abandoned  in 
so  far  as  its  subjects  had  been  mythical  or  religious,  that 
is  to  say  pagan.  Now,  aside  from  Roman  portraits 
almost  the  entire  ancient  art  was  ostensibly  mythical 
in  subject.  The  cessation  of  patronage  involved  the 
downfall  of  the  art.  There  was  furthermore  the  an- 
tagonism of  the  Christian  ideal  of  those  days  to  the 
ancient  ideal  of  beauty  and  physical  well  being  as 
expressed  in  sculpture.  The  mission  of  the  Christian 
was  to  exalt  the  things  ’of  the  spirit  above  the  things 
of  the  body — poverty,  humility,  long-suffering,  and  the 


THE  EOHA?*’'  DECADENCE. 


79 


mortification  of  human  desires  were  the  virtues  which 
he  exalted.  There  was,  moreover,  a natural  bond  of 
connection  between  the  deterioration  of  Eoman  art 
(involved  in  the  widespread  diffusion  among  the  pro- 
vincials) and  the  triumph  of  the  Christians.  For  in 
this  triumph  was  involved  a revolution  in  the  social 
order  and  in  the  standiug  of  the  classes  of  society.  The 
Christian  faith  found  its  first  converts  among  the  poor 
and  lowly.  It  spread  most  rapidly  among  the  lower 
orders  of  society.  Their  triumph  was  the  defeat  of 
the  aristocracies  of  wealth  and  blood  which  did  not  ally 
themselves  with  the  new  movement.  For  it  was  with 
the  philosophers,  with  the  learned,  and  with  the  well- 
born, that  paganism  especially  found  its  strongest  sup- 
porters and  advocates.  The  deterioration  of  taste  and 
refinement  which  has  been  explained  as  a natural  result 
of  the  diffusion  of  Eoman  culture  over  Western  Europe, 
was  allied  with  the  social  revolution  which  the  triumph 
of  the  Christians  carried  with  it. 

But  there  is  still  something  to  be  said  as  to  the  deca- 
dence of  antique  Eoman  art,  which  regards  the  introduc- 
tion of  foreign  barbaric  elements  within  the  limits  of  its 
civilization.  In  the  later  days  of  the  empire  (third  cen- 
tury B.  C.)  its  borders  maybe  roughly  described,  outside 
of  Britain,  as  the  Ehine,  Danube,  Black  Sea,  Caucasus, 
and  the  Syrian,  Arabian,  and  African  deserts.  On  one 
of  its  frontier  lines  especially,  that  of  the  Ehine  and 
Danube,  there  had  long  been  going  on  a Eomanizing 
process  beyond  the  frontier  among  the  Gerntan  and 
Gothic  tribes.  These  were  semi -barbarians,  of  great 
vigor  and  valor,  addicted  to  warfare  and  renowned 
for  military  prowess.  It  was  among  these  tribes  that 
the  Eoman  legions  of  these  frontiers  were  very  largely 


80 


EOilAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


recruited,  the  interior  populations  of  the  empire  having 
by  long  peace  grown  unaccustomed  to  war.  A final 
element  of  deterioration  was  therefore  the  employment 
and  settlement  within  the  empire  of  enormous  masses  of 
barbarian  troops  and  ultimately  not  only  the  legions 


Fig.  51.— Basilica  of  St.  Paul.  Rome.  Rebuilt  1S2S. 

Old  Church,  Fourth  Century. 

themselves  were  thus  recruited,  but  certain  tribes 
were  enrolled  in  mass  under  the  Roman  standards  and 
subsequently  settled  on  Roman  territory.  The  tribes  so 
enrolled  were  partly  Romanized  and  were  Christian  con- 
verts. 

It  was  at  the  close  of  the  fifth  century  after  Christ 
that  all  these  various  elements  of  disintegration  showed 
their  results  in  what  historians  call  ^^the  downfall  of 
the  Roman  Empire  of  the  West.” 


THE  ROMAN  DECADENCE. 


81 


The  Boman  Christian  Art. 

There  is  not  the  slightest  reason  why  the  Christian 
pictures  of  the  catacombs,  and  the  sculptured  Christian 
sarcophagi  which  are  our  main  relics  of  early  Christian 
art  should  not  be  formally  included  with  the  Eoman  art 
of  the  ancient  Eoman  Empire.  They  belong  to  it  in 
time  and  in  civilization.  They  reflected  and  shared  and 
partly  caused  its  decadence  and  they  assist  us  when  so 


Fig.  52.— Early  Christian  Sarcophagus  Relief.  The 
Resurrection  of  Lazarus.  Ravenna. 

placed  and  studied  to  comprehend  the  continuity  of 
history  as  existing  between  the  late  Eoman  Empire 
and  the  early  Middle  Age.  There  were  two  entire 
centuries  after  the  recognition  of  Christianity  by  Con- 
stantine before  the  establishment  of  the  first  Germanic 
state  in  Western  Europe,  with  which  the  history  of 


82 


EOMAX  AXO  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


the  Middle  Ages  should  properly  begin.*  From  the 
opening  of  the  fourth  century  onward,  there  were 
Christian  churches  and  there  was  Christian  art  in  all  the 
territories  of  the  empire — in  Britain,  France,  Spain, 
Italy,  North  Africa,  Egypt,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  the 
Danube  countries,  Macedonia,  and  Greece. 

The  oldest  standing  Christian  Church  is  the  Church  of 
the  Manger  at  Bethlehem,  built  in  the  early  fourth 
century  and  traditionally  reputed  to  stand  on  the  site  of 
Christ’s  nativity. t This  is  the  only  positively  dated 
standing  church  of  the  fourth  century  A.  D.  There  are 
some  ruins  in  North  Africa  of  older  churches,  but  in 
general  the  persecutions  made  constructions  definitely 
assigned  to  worship  impossible,  and  these  persecutions 
were  not  forbidden  till  the  opening  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. 

The  most  famous  churches  of  this  time  were  the 
Eoman  church  basilicas  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
each  reputed  to  be  on  the  site  of  the  martyrdom  of 
its  saint.  The  St.  Peter’s  basilica  was  torn  down  in  the 
sixteenth  century  to  make  way  for  the  new  church 
then  built.  The  St.  Paul’s  basilica  was  mainly  des- 
troyed by  fire  in  our  own  century  (1828),  and  has 
been  since  rebnilt,  but  one  portion  is  ancient.  In 
general  we  are  dependent  on  churches  of  the  sixth, 
seventh,  or  eighth  centnries  for  onr  knowledge  of  the 

*The  State  of  the  West  Goths  ; at  first  confined  to  Xortheast  Spain. 

tThe  three  centuries  which  elapsed  between  the  time  when  the  first 
gospels  were  written  and  the  period  of  Constantine,  were  times  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  hastily  accepted  and  unauthorized  traditions  as  to  the 
actual  localities  of  the  events  described  by  them.  The  record  of  tradition 
in  itself  is,  however,  often  as  valid  and  authentic  as  that  of  writing.  There 
is  as  little  reason  for  hastily  doubting  as  there  is  for  hastily  accepting  these 
traditions.  Probabilities,  facts,  and  records  have  to  be  considered  for  each 
special  case,  and  the  tradition  itself  is  always  a noteworth.v  and  interesting 
thing  even  when  proven  erroneous. 


THE  ROHAN  DECADENCE. 


83 


earlier  ones,  but  these  are  also  few  in  number.  We 
should  not  the  less  insist  on  the  fact  that  both  the 
western  and  eastern  portions  of  the  Eoman  Empire 


Fig.  53.— Eaely  Christian  S.arcophagus  Relief.— Christ  and 
Four  Apostles.  Ravenna. 

were  full  of  Christian  churches  after  the  oi^ening  of  the 
fourth  century  A.  D. 

The  most  interesting  remains  of  early  Christian  art 
are  the  paintings  of  the  catacombs.  These  were  under- 
ground cemeteries  to  which  the  early  Christians  resorted 
for  refuge  in  times  of  persecution.  Small  chapels  for 
prayer  and  worship  were  occasionally  associated  with 
the  burial  places  of  eminent  martyrs  or  saints  and  are 
the  points  at  which  these  decorative  paintings  are  found. 
The  earliest  known  are  probably  of  the  second  century 
A.  D.,  and  they  continue  through  the  eighth  century. 
The  style  of  these  pictures  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  con- 
temporary, pagan  art.  The  subjects  of  some  of  them  are 
adaptations  of  pagan  myths  to  a Christian  use.  In  one 
of  them  Christ  appears  as  Orpheus. 

The  catacomb  pictures  (paintings  on  the  plastered 
walls)  are  small,  but  bright  and  happy  in  color  and  com- 


84 


EOilAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


bined  with  pattern  ornaments  of  classic  style.  The 
remains,  however,  are  scanty  and  the  number  known 
is  not  large.  The  treatment  of  the  subjects,  the  ‘‘Last 
Supper,”  the  Woman  at  the  Well,”  etc.,  has  an 
imposing  simplicity  and  earnestness.  The  technical  ex- 
ecution and  perfection  of  these  works  vary  with  the 
period  and,  strangely  enough,  we  have  here  the  spectacle 
of  a newborn  art  as  to  subject  which  declines  in  quality 


Fig.  5i.— Eakly  Christian  Sarcophagi's  Relief.  Daniel 
IN  THE  Lions’  Den.  Ravenna. 

of  style  as  time  goes  on.  The  third  century  art  of 
the  catacombs  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  second  century. 
This  is  one  curious  illustration  of  the  general  deteriora- 
tion in  ancient  art  whose  causes  have  been  considered. 

’•’It  is  quite  difficult  to  realize  from  photographs  the  true  appearance 
of  these  frescoes.  See  Fig.  49. 


THE  ROMAN  DECADENCE. 


85 


The  catacombs  are  variously  nametl  according  to  the 
most  eminent  saints  who  were  buried  in  them. 

Aside  from  these  paintings  the  early  remains  of  Chris- 
tian art  consist  mainly  of  coffin  sculptures.  The  sar- 
cophagi carved  in  relief,  which  were  used  for  burial  by 
the  later  Eomans,  continued  in  Christian  use  and  were 
likewise  decorated  with  relief  sculptures  of  Christian 
subjects.  The  most  interesting  collections  of  these  sar- 
cophagi are  in  the  Lateran  Museum  at  Eome,  at  Ea- 
venna,  and  at  Arles  in  Southern  France.  The  practice 
of  making  these  sculj)tured  cof&ns  disappeared  with 
other  late  classic  influences  and  was  gradually  abandoned 
after  the  fifth  century  A.  D.  It  is  a consideration  which 
helps  one  to  understand  the  decadence  of  ancient  sculp- 
ture that  in  early  Christian  art  its  only  important  use 
was  the  decoration  of  the  stone  coffins,  and  that  even 
this  use  was  rapidly  abandoned. 

Of  all  the  arts  of  design  that  which  lasted  longest 
and  which  survived  in  finest  style  was  the  carving  of 
ivory.  This  was  practiced  for  book  covers  and  for  the 
^^diptychs”  or  tablets  of  ivory  which  were  distributed 
by  the  consuls  of  the  later  empire  in  honor  of  their 
election  to  office. 

It  is  obviously  indifferent  to  the  student  in  what 
material  or  how  small  and  apparently  insignificant  the 
object  is  which  illustrates  the  history  or  style  of  a period. 
Partly  because  the  practice  of  this  art  was  a favored  one, 
partly  because  the  ivory  tablets  did  not  offer  the  tempta- 
tion to  pillage  in  the  times  of  the  German  invasions  to 
which  the  works  of  metal  were  exj)osed,  and  partly 
because  the  ivory  material  has  been  a durable  one — it  is 
especially  to  the  ivories  that  we  must  turn  when  we 
wish  to  find  a survival  of  fair  antique  design  at  a late 


86 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


period  of  the  Eomau  decadence.  The  connecting  links 
with  the  later  art  of  the  Middle  Ages  are  conseqnently 
most  obvious  here  and  the  way  in  which  one  period  always 
merges  into  another  without  abrupt  changes  or  sudden 
revolutions,  is  especially  well  illustrated  by  these  objects. 

A curious  exception  to  the  general  law  of  inferior 

style  and  declining 
force  in  the  later  Eo- 
man  art  is  offered  by 
the  art  of  glass.  As 
the  practice  of  plac- 
ing objects  in  the 
tombs  generally  dis- 
appeared with  the 
Christian  conversions, 
we  cannot  trace  this 
art  farther  than  the 
sixth  century,  but 
when  its  relics  dis- 
appear the  art  was  at 
a very  high  level  of 
excellence.*  The  ex- 
planation is  a com- 
mentary on  the 
general  conditions 
which  otherwise  explain  the  decline  of  ancient  design. 
Glass  making  was  not  an  art  in  which  figure  designs, 
and  consequently  pagan  subjects,  could  be  generally 
introduced.  Consequently  it  was  not  exposed  to  the  an- 
tagonisms and  destruction  which  befell  the  arts  of  temple 
architecture,  of  sculpture,  of  painting,  and  of  metal. 

* There  is  a piece  of  sixth  century  glass  illustrating  this  point,  in  the  New 
York  Museum. 


Fig.  55.— Ivory  Consular  Diptych. 
Victory,  with  Globe  and  Scepter. 
Fourth  Century. 


CHAPTER  TX. 


SUMMARY. 

According  to  tPe  points  of  view  laid  down  in  this 
entire  account  of  the  Roman  art,  we  may  repeat  and 
emphasize  the  following  : 

(rt)  A certain  general  deterioration  of  taste  and  style 
is  visible  as  early  as  the  second  century  A.  D.,  although 
the  Roman  architecture  was  less  visibly  affected  than 
other  arts  by  this  movement.  This  deterioration  is  most 
apparent  in  the  provincial  territories  and  reacted  on  the 
original  and  native  centers.  It  became  more  visibly  ap- 
parent in  the  third  century,  which  was  the  last,  in 
general,  of  a distinctly  antique  art ; although  the  survi- 
val of  antique  traits  and  style  continued  in  Christian  art 
long  after  this  time. 

(b)  The  decline  and  decadence  of  the  antique  art 
resulted  partly  from  its  wide  diffusion  over  territories  to 
which  it  was  not  originally  native  and  from  its  transfer 
to  populations  which  took  and  used  it  at  secondhand. 
Partly,  and  very  especially,  it  resulted  from  the  spirit 
and  influences  of  the  Christian  religion  and  its  antago- 
nism to  the  subjects  and  ideals  of  pagan  art — for  any 
attack  on  the  basis  and  foundations  of  an  art  necessarily 
results  in  sapping  its  technical  powers — practice  and 
patronage  being  the  necessary  conditions  of  perfection. 
The  decline  of  taste  was  again  partly  caused  by  the  rise 

87 


88 


EOMA?v^  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


of  the  lower  orders  of  society,  who  were  especially 
attached  to  the  Christian  faith,  and  by  the  overthrow 
in  power  and  influence  of  the  higher  classes,  which 
had  remained  attached  to  paganism.  The  decadence 
of  art  was  again  caused  by  the  influences  of  exterior 
barbarism,  which  in  the  declining  physical  and  moral 
forces  of  the  empire  became  its  military  prop  and 
material  supiiort. 

(c)  Eoman  art  had  originally  the  same  general  qual- 
ities and  perfections,  wherever  found  ; within  the  bound- 
aries established  by  the  ocean,  by  the  Irish  Channel,  the 
highlands  of  Scotland,  the  Ehine,  Danube,  the  Black 
Sea,  and  bj^  the  Syrian,  Arabian,  and  African  deserts. 
Throughout  this  area  it  represented  the  civilization  of 
the  peoples  of  the  given  countries  at  a given  time,  and 
essentially  it  did  not  represent  the  importation  or  intru- 
sion of  objects  due  to  military  conquest  and  foreign 
colonization  or  the  erection  of  buildings  by  foreign 
and  opjiressive  rulers.  The  “Eomans”  of  the  given 
time  were  all  the  freemen  of  all  these  countries. 

(d)  The  two  factors  of  Eoman  art  and  Eoman  civiliza- 
tion were  originally  the  technical  and  industrial  arts 
of  the  Oriental  world  as  molded  and  transformed  by 
Phenician  or  Etruscan  and  Greek  style  and  influences, 
and  secondly  the  Greek  civilization  itself,  as  independ- 
ently de\"elox)ed  in  all  the  territories  east  of  Italy  which 
subsequently  became  provinces  of  the  empii’e,  and  which 
remained  in  civilization  after  that  political  change  as 
they  had  been  before. 

(e)  Among  the  countries  of  the  Western  INIediterra- 
neau,  Aorth  Africa,  Spain,  and  Southern  France  had 
experienced  foreign  civilizing  influences  through  Pheui- 
cians  or  Greeks,  or  both,  before  the  Eoman  power 


SUMMARY. 


89 


was  established  in  them.  The  countries  most  distinctly 
colonized  and  civilized  by  the  native  Eomans  alone, 
after  the  time  of  Eoman  imperial  power  began,  were 
Northern  France,  England,  Southern  and  Western  Ger- 
many, and  Hungary. 

(/)  Eoman  art  or  civilization  was  that  of  the  Italians 
at  large  who  adopted  the  Latin  language  and  became 
“ Eomans.” 

It  follows  from  these  points  that  the  ruins  and 
works  of  art  of  the  city  of  Eome  and  of  the  Italian 
territory  are  representative  for  many  other  countries 
where  the  destruction  of  the  monuments  has  been  more 
complete.  The  ruins  and  remains  of  other  countries  are 
to  be  regarded  conversely  not  so  much  as  survivals  of 
the  individual  objects  and  buildings  themselves  as  in- 
dications of  an  entire  and  universal  civilization  for 
the  given  area.  We  have  seen  that  the  most  perfect 
picture  of  the  old  Eoman  world  as  regards  the  ruins 
of  buildings,  is  found  to-day  in  the  remote  fringe  of 
territory  bordering  on  the  Syrian  desert,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  here  only  the  ruins  have  not  been  treated 
as  quarries  in  later  times.  It  will  also  be  observed  that 
we  owe  to  the  chance  destruction  of  two  individual 
towns  by  volcanic  eruptions  almost  all  the  knowledge 
that  we  possess  of  the  domestic  life  of  entire  centuries 
.and  of  many  different  nations. 


PART  IT 


MEDIEVAL  ART. 


PART  II.-MEDIEVAL  ART. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  GERMAN  INVASIONS. 

We  may  now  return  to  our  elemeutary  summary  of 
ancient  European  history  (p,  9)  for  a conception  of  the 
life  of  the  countries  of  Northern  Europe  before  the  in- 
fluence of  Roman  history  began  to  reach  them.  What 
holds  broadly  for  Italy  at  one  date  holds  broadly  and 
successively  for  the  Germanic  or  Celtic  races  at  another 
and  a later  date. 

In  the  main  the  history  of  the  art  of  the  Middle 
Ages  is  the  history  of  civilization  in  the  Germanic 
or  Germanized  countries  of  Europe,  with  the  all- 
important  modifications  carried  by  the  Christian  re- 
ligion. 

At  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  A.  D.  an  invasion 
of  Mongolian  tribes  from  Asia  flooded  the  territory 
north  of  the  Black  Sea  and  crowded  against  the  Gothic 
(German)  tribes  who  were  settled  north  of  the  lower 
Danube.  These  were  themselves  emigrants  from  Scan- 
dinavia, whose  appearance  in  Southern  Europe  a century 
before  had  crowded  other  Germau  tribes  against  the 
Rhine  frontiers  and  had  consequently  been  the  cause  of 
ceaseless  warfare  for  the  Roman  legions  who  were  there 

93 


94 


EOMA^S'"  AXD  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


posted.  At  the  appearance  of  the  Mongolian  Huns  the 
Ooths  first  menaced  by  them  (at  this  date  Eoman 
Christians)  begged  permission  to  pass  the  Danube 
frontier,  and  this  was  granted.  These  Visigoths  (V^est- 
Goths)  were  subsequently  taken  into  Eoman  pay  as 
mercenary  warriors,  were  then  employed  in  warfare  be- 
tween rival  Eoman  emperors,  and  were  finally  settled  in 
Northeastern  Spain  where  they  founded  the  Visigothic 
kingdom  (412  A.  D.),  which  spread  over  most  of  Spain 
and  over  Southwestern  France. 

Meantime  other  German  tribes  had  been  pushed  by 
the  Huns  across  the  Ehine  (406).  The  Eoman  emperors 
of  Western  Europe  * had  now  become  so  dependent  on 
the  foreign  troops  that  oneA)f  their  chieftains  (Odoacer) 
himself  took  the  title  of  King  of  Italy  in  476  ; although 
he  professed  nominal  allegiance  to  the  eastern  emperor 
and  considered  himself  as  his  military  deputy.  After 
and  before  this  time,  during  the  century  and  a half  be- 
tween 400  and  550  A.  D.,  there  was  a chaos  of  contend- 
ing armies  and  a general  melee  between  the  German 
tribes  and  the  Eoman  civilization  of  the  West,  in  which 
the  Christian  faith  of  both  parties,  and  the  German 
habit  of  serving  nominally  or  actually  as  Eoman  soldiers 
did  much  to  soften  and  mitigate  the  horrors  of  war  and 
the  sufferings  of  the  vanquished  party. 

The  general  result  of  these  invasions  was  by  no  means 
the  extermination  or  even  conquest  (in  an  odious  sense) 
of  the  old  Eomanized  populations  of  Italy,  Spain,  and 


* As  the  title  of  emperor  corresponded  to  that  oi  geueral-in-chief,  it  had 
been  customary  since  Diocletian's  time  (300  A.  D.)  on  account  of  the  con- 
stant pressure  on  the  frontiers  (of  Persia  as  ■n'ell  as  of  Germany)  to  divide 
the  imperial  power  between  generals  (emperors)  of  tlie  East  and  West. 
Tliese  were  frequently  rivals  and  engaged  in  civil  wars  which  much  weak- 
ened the  state. 


THE  PEEIOD  OF  THE  GEEMAX  IXVASIOXS. 


95 


France  ; among  whom  so  many  Germanic  people  now 
became  settled.  But  the  general  result  was  most  dis- 
tinctly a great  depression  or  absolute  cessation  of  com- 
mercial prosperity,  a general  impoverishment  of  the 
refined  and  cultured  classes,  and  the  elevation  to  power  of 
rude  and  illiterate  military  chieftains  whose  equally  un- 
cultivated warriors  became  the  great  landowners  and  the 


Fig.  56— Axglo-Saxox  Whalebone  Casket.  Kortliumberlaiid. 

rnling  caste  of  Europe.  Learning  took  refuge  in  the 
church.  The  clergy  were  the  only  power  which  could 
cope  with  the  rough  characters  of  the  military  caste. 

The  Germanic  settlers  were  sincere  although  supersti- 
tious and  illiterate  Christians,  and  the  old  Eoman  rule 
continued  in  this  spiritual  guise.  Bishops  and  priests 
were  the  successors  of  the  emperors  and  consuls. 


9G 


KOMAX  AXD  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


The  Auglo-Saxon  states  of  England  (founded  after 
449)  were  the  only  ones  which  were  not  Christian 
at  the  time  of  foundation  and  England  was  the  only 
country  in  which  the  actual  displacement,  or  comparative 
extermination,  of  one  race  by  another  was  the  result  of 
the  invasions.  These  involved,  for  the  time  being,  an 
utter  downfall  of  the  old  Roman  and  Christian  civiliza- 
tion of  Britain,  whose  fate  was  much  harder  than  that  of 
any  other  Roman  country.  During  the  sixth  century 
the  Germanic  Frankish  state,  from  which  modern 
France  is  named,  gathered  power  in  this  country  and  in 
Germany.  In  Italy  the  half-century  rule  of  the  Ger- 
manic East  Goths  was  succeeded  by  that  of  the  Germanic 
Lombards.  Here  also  the  power  of  the  East-Roman 
emperor  was  again  permanently  established  over  certain 
coast  territories,  including  the  city  of  Rome,  but  was 
especially  powerful  at  Ravenna  and  in  neighboring  ter- 
ritory on  the  upper  Adriatic  coast  of  Italy. 

All  these  political  and  social  changes  point  to  and  ex- 
plain a culmination  of  the  art  decadence  and  a long 
period  of  at  least  apparent  barbarism  in  the  civilization 
and  art  of  'Western  Europe.  There  are  some  main 
things  to  be  said  on  the  general  Cjnestion  of  the  culture 
of  this  time  down  to  the  Italian  Renaissance  and  the  be- 
ginnings of  modern  history. 

The  Germans  before  the  invasions  were  by  no  means 
a barbaric  or  savage  people,  but  the  warfare,  pillage, 
and  marauding  of  the  warrior  caste  lowered  their 
morals  when  their  homes  became  unsettled.  As  Xorth- 
erners  and  as  Germans,  unused  to  the  luxuries  and  re- 
finements of  Roman  life  and  the  climate  of  southern 
countries,  their  manners  became  more  lax  and  their 
natures  were  deteriorated  after  the  invasions ; as  is 


THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  GERMAN  INVASIONS. 


97 


always  the  ease  when  a ruder  people  is  thrown  into  con- 
tact with  one  more  highly  civilized.  There  is  then  an 
undeniable  element  of  semi-barbarism  in  the  culture 
and  therefore  in  the  art  of  the  earlier  Middle  Ages. 

Moreover,  there  were  successive  setbacks  involved  in 


Fig.  57.— Tenth  Century  Wai.u  Painting.  The  Annunci- 
ation. San  Clemente,  Rome. 

the  leavening  of  still  other  uncultivated  tribes  or  nations 
after  the  process  had  been  accomplished  for  some.  The 
progress  which  had  been  made  in  France  between  the 
sixth  and  ninth  centuries  was  again  arrested  by  the 
Northmen  raids  from  vScandinavia  in  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries.  The  Danes  in  England  were  the  same 
people  under  another  name  and  did  the  same  injury 
here.  After  the  Danes  and  Northmen  had  been  worked 
over  into  the  medieval  system  the  same  process  had  to 
be  repeated  with  the  Hungarians  of  Eastern  Europe 
(barbarian  settlers  from  Asia  in  the  tenth  century),  with 
the  Slavonic  populations  of  Eastern  Europe,  and  with 


98 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


the  native  inhabitants  of  Denmark,  Xorway,  and 
Sweden.  These  successive  and  repeated  contests  of 
dawning  civilization  with  new  races  and  new  difficulties 
absorbed  much  of  the  energy  of  the  medieval  popula- 
tions and  retarded  the  progress  of  those  which  had  been 
first  Eomanized. 

Of  the  entire  Middle  Ages,  however,  it  must  be  said, 
that  much  which  appears  to  us  barbarous  in  their  design 
is  merely  the  result  of  the  early  Christian  prejudice 
against  the  study  of  natm-al  form  and  of  the  early 

Christian  indifference 
to  natural  beauty. 
The  learner  could  not 
rise  above  his  teacher 
in  such  a matter  be- 
cause he  had  other- 
wise too  much  to 
learn,  and  the  Ger- 
manic states  of  Eu- 
rope long  accepted 
the  style  of  the  Eo- 
man  decadence  with 
the  same  unquestion- 
ing faith  which  they  professed  in  their  new  religion.  It 
was  in  fact  entirely  religious  art  which  they  practiced 
and  this  was  naturally  a borrowed  art.  In  our  own 
times  design  is  taught  for  its  own  sake  and  for  the  sake 
of  imitating  nature.  As  the  imitation  of  nature  was 
not  the  object  of  the  medieval  art,  which  only  aimed  at 
religious  instruction  or  expression  of  religious  senti- 
ment, there  was  less  attention  to  the  question  of  nature. 

The  ugliest  and  most  barbaric  designs  of  the  period 
become  intensely  interesting  when  we  view  them  as 


THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  GERMAN  INVASIONS. 


99 


historic  monuments  and  as  traditional  types.  The  sub- 
ject and  its  meaning  are  always  to  be  considered  first 
and  the  execution  second.  From  the  subject  we  learn 
what  interested  the  people,  how  great  was  their  faith, 
and  how  this  faith  was  expressed  in  every  possible  visi- 
ble way  which  was  open  to  them. 


CHAPTEE  11. 

THE  BYZANTINE  ART. 

It  is  not  till  the  eleventh  century  that  ve  see  spon- 
taneous efforts  at  improved  design  in  Western  Europe, 
and  for  that  date  the  existing  monuments  of  such  spon- 
taneous efforts  are  quite  rare — for  instance,  the  bronze 
cathedral  doors  made  under  direction  of  Bishop  Bern- 
ward  of  Hildesheim.  Meantime  we  see  either  survivals 
of  the  old  classic  decadence,  as  represented  by  some  of 
the  sarcophagi  of  Eavenna  (Figs.  53,  54)  ; or  efforts  of 
more  or  less  untrained  barbarism  or  ignorance  (Figs. 
56,  57)  ; or  what  is  known  as  the  “Byzantine”  style. 
This  last  was  native  to  Eastern  Europe  and  the  Eoman 
territories  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  but  is  found 
in  widespread  examples  also  in  all  parts  of  Western 
Europe. 

It  should  be  explained  that  these  three  classes  of 
art  works  are  not  to  be  conceived  as  existing  at  one  time 
in  one  territory.  The  coexistence  of  the  Byzantine 
style  with  semi-barbaric  art  is  to  be  expected.  The 
coexistence  of  the  survival  of  the  older  classic  decadence 
(Fig.  54)  with  the  Byzantine  style  is  also  to  be  ex- 
pected. But  the  classic  decadence  survival  will,  gener- 
ally speaking,  exclude  the  barbaric  art  and  for  obvious 
reasons.  Being  a survival  it  is  confined  to  certain  local- 
ities which  for  one  reason  or  another  had  escaped  the 


]00 


Fig.  59.— Chukch  of  St.  Makk.  Vestibqi.e  with  Mosaics.  Venice. 


102 


EOIIAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


more  overwhelming  devastations  of  the  invasions.  Arles 
(in  Southern  France),  Borne,  and  Eavenna,  are  the  places 
where  this  style  is  best  represented  and  it  scarcely  sur- 
vived the  sixth  century.  Otherwise  we  find  its  examples, 
and  some  peculiarly  fine  ones,  in  ivories,  and  for  the 
reason  that  this  art  was  much  practiced  and  consequently 
preserved  a higher  traditional  standard  of  excellence. 

The  Byzantine  style  is  naturally  found  coexistent 
with  the  semi-barbaric  art  because  it  represented  the 
intrnsive  art  of  imported  Byzantine  workmen  or  was 
itself  actually  imported.  We  also  find  various  stages  of 
imitation  of  the  Byzantine  style,  so  that  there  are  all 
possible  transitions  between  a wholly  clumsy  untrained 
early  medieval  effort  and  a highly  finished  product 
of  the  pure  Byzantine  style  (Figs.  56,  58,  60). 

We  shall  now  consider  this  style  somewhat  more 
closely.  As  regards  its  name  we  observe  that  Byzan- 
tium was  the  older  title  of  the  Greek  colony  on  the 
Bosphorus,  whose  site  was  selected  by  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantine in  the  fourth  century  for  the  new  capital  of  his 
empire.  As  to  all  the  reasons  which  inspired  Constan- 
tine in  this  transfer  of  the  seat  of  the  capital  from  Borne 
we  are  not  clear,  but  the  most  important  one  is  obvious. 
As  the  residence  of  the  emperor  (who  was  always  a 
military  man  and  commander  in  chief  of  the  army  above 
everything  else)  Byzantium  was  halfway  between  the 
two  frontiers  which  were  most  in  danger  in  the  fourth 
century,  viz.,  the  lower  Danube  and  the  upper  Euphrates. 
Although  this  capital  has  always  been  known  as  Con- 
stantinople since  the  time  of  Constantine — the  adjective 
‘ ‘ Byzantine  ’ ’ (probably  for  reasons  of  euphony  as  pref- 
erable to  Constantinopolitan  ”)  has  always  been  ap- 
plied by  moderns  to  the  empire  whose  sole  capital  it 


THE  BYZANTINE  AET.  103^ 

became  after  the  German  tribes  founded  their  new  states 
in  the  Western  Empire.  The  Byzantine  Empire  is 
simply  therefore  the  Eoman  Empire  under  a new  name, 
which  name  is  applied  to  it  for  the  period  after  the  Ger- 
man invasions  and  is  therefore  to  be  understood  as  mean- 
ing the  empire  bereft  of  those  territories  which  became 
the  Germanic  states  of  the  Middle  Ages.  As  the  Otto- 
man Turks  conquered,  in  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and 
sixteenth  centuries,  all  the  countries  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire,  a map  of  Turkey  in  Europe  and  Turkey  in 
Asia  in  its  widest  extent  (and  before  recent  nineteenth 
century  losses)  will  give  a fair  idea  of  its  territories. 
In  its  most  flourishing  period,  which  was  the  time  of 
the  Emperor  Justinian  (sixth  century),  it  included  for 
a short  time  also  the  whole  of  Italy,  and  it  retained  pos- 
session of  Eavenna  and  the  ‘‘exarchate  of  Eavenna” 
until  the  close  of  the  eighth  century.  It  also  ruled 
in  Justinian’s  time  the  whole  of  North  Africa.  This- 
territory,  together  with  Egypt  and  Syria,  was  lost  to  the 
Arabs  in  the  seventh  century.  The  empire  lasted  in 
Asia  Minor  till  the  fourteenth  century,  and  in  Eastern 
Europe  till  the  fifteenth  century  (1453). 

These  political  facts  are  essential  to  the  comprehen- 
sion of  the  influence  of  Byzantine  art  in  Western  Europe 
and  of  the  long- continued  duration  of  this  influence. 

The  peculiar  style  of  Byzantine  design  is  shown  by  a 
number  of  illustrations  (Figs.  60-64),  which  are,  how- 
ever, highly  unfair  to  it  where  color  is  concerned,  and 
that  is  to  say  in  the  case  of  all  mosaics.  The  evolution 
of  this  style  from  the  earlier  classic  art  of  the  Eoman- 
Greek  eastern  countries,  is  not  represented  by  existing 
monuments.  We  find  it  in  the  sixth  century  fully  devel- 
oped, and  the  transition  stages  are  not  well  known  to  us. 


Fig.  CO.— Byzantine  JIos.yic.  St.  Marli's.  Y'enice. 


THE  BYZANTINE  AKT. 


105 


It  is  clearly  a style  which  grew  out  of  traditional 
repetition  of  set  designs,— pictures  of  saints,  Bible 
stories,  etc., — without  the  least  reference  to  correction 
by  observation  of  natural  forms,  and  this  indifference  to 
nature  has  been  explained  as  an  element  of  the  early 
Christian  movement  (p.  78).  The  figures  are  unnatur- 
ally elongated,  the  attitudes  are  formal  and  motionless, 
the  expressions  are  rigid,  conventional,  and  lifeless. 
The  technical  execution  is  frequently  or  generally  of 
finished  perfection  for  the  given  material. 

Mosaics. 

Aside  from  architecture  itself,  the  best  efibrts  of 
Byzantine  art  were  devoted  to  church  decoration  and 
especially  to  decoration  in  glass  mosaics.  It  is  here  that 
the  East  Eomans  succeeded  best  and  that  their  art, 
for  the  given  purpose,  was  entirely  adequate.  In  this 
art  also,  their  own  workmen  were  sought  for  in  all  other 
countries,  and  through  this  art  their  influence  is  most 
apparent  and  was  most  felt  in  Western  Europe. 

There  is  only  one  church  in  the  world  whose  whole  in- 
terior is  now  visible  in  the  mosaic  decorations  of  its 
ancient  time.  This  is  the  church  of  St.  Mark  at 
Venice,  begun  in  the  tenth  century,  which  is  also  the 
tomb  and  shrine  of  the  (supposed)  body  of  the  saint, 
which  was  brought  at  that  time  from  Alexandria,  in 
Egypt.  The  mosaics  are  not  all  of  the  date  of  the 
church  and  some  have  been  considerably  restored,  but 
the  general  effect  corresponds  to  what  it  has  always 
been.  The  backgrounds  of  the  glass  mosaics  are  invari- 
ably gold,*  the  other  colors  are  brilliant  or  warm  in  tone 


* 111  the  developed  Byzantine  stylo.  A blue  background  was  used  in  the 
very  early  Christian  mosaics. 


106 


EOMAX  AXD  MEDIEVAL  AJRT. 


and  beautifully  harmonized  and  contrasted.  The  for- 
malism of  the  designs  assists  the  color  effects  and  is 
largely  essential  to  them.  This  is  because  colors  are 
more  effective  when  boldly  opposed  and  contrasted  with 
one  another — and  less  effective  when  connected  by 
shaded  transitions  or  modified  tints.  When  colors  are 
directly  contrasted  there  must  be  a boundary  between 
them,  that  is  to  say  a formal  line.  That  these  outlines 
may  be  beautiful  and  in  a sense  natural  is  true,  and  the 


Fig.  61.— Byzaxtixe  Mosaic.  Procession  of  Saints. 
.San  Apollinare  Nuovo,  Ravenna.  Sixth  Century. 


Greeks  so  understood  the  art  of  decorating  with  figures, 
but  it  is  also  true  that  as  far  as  color  results  are  concerned 
the  beauty  of  the  form  is  a matter  of  indifference.  This 
appears  in  the  fine  color  effects  of  many  Oriental  de- 
signs whose  forms  are  stiff  and  unnatural.  It  is  when 
we  study  the  mosaics  in  their  architectural  position  and 
in  their  decorative  color  results  that  the  peculiar  Byzan- 
tine style  is  seen  at  its  best  and  for  the  given  use  and 


THE  BYZANTIKE  AET. 


107 


place  it  then,  seems  absolutely  perfect — from  a deco- 
rative point  of  view. 

For  some  reasons  the  mosaics  of  the  Eavenna  churches 
are  superior  to  those  first  mentioned.  The  fifth  and 
sixth  centuries  did  best  in  this  art,  and  those  of  St. 
Mark’s  are  too  late  in  time  to  represent  the  best  works 
as  regards  composition  and  detail.  It  is  in  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  color  effect  of  an  entire  interior  that  St. 
Mark’s  stands  foremost  and  alone.  At  Eavenna,  San 
Apollinare  Nuovo  exhibits  an  interior  whose  side  walls 
are  still  entirely  covered  with  mosaics  of  the  sixth 
century,  the  only  ex- 
isting church  of  the 
basilica  type  in  the 
world  which  can 
claim  this  distinction. 

The  main  wall  sur- 
faces show  proces- 
sions of  saints  issuing 
from  the  cities  of 
Eavenna  and  Jerusa- 
lem and  terminating 
with  an  Adoration  of 
the  Magi  and  a group 
of  angels  with  the 
Madonna  and  infant 
Savior.  The  church 
of  San  Apollinare  in 
Classe,  at  Eavenna 
(sixth  century),  has 
preserved  the  mosaic 
of  its  apse,  or  choir, 
church,  a picture  of  Christ  as  the  Good  Shepherd  with 


Fig.  62.— Byzantine  Mosaic  Detail. 
Head  op  the  Esiphess  Theodora. 
San  Vitale,  Ravenna. 

Sixth  Century. 

dating  a century  later  than  the 


108 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


his  flock.  In  the  tomb  chapel  of  Galla  Placidia,  at 
Eavenna,  there  is  a fine  mosaic  of  the  fifth  century, 
Christ  as  the  Good  Shepherd.  In  the  church  of  San 
Vitale,  at  Eavenna,  are  the  famous  mosaic  portraits  of 
the  Emperor  Justinian  and  his  Empress  Theodora,  sur- 
rounded respectively  by  courtiers  and  ladies  of  the  court 
(Fig.  62). 

The  mosaics  of  the  ancient  Eoman  churches  are  gener- 
ally of  inferior  quality  or  preservation,  but  the  apse 
mosaic  of  the  church  of  Santi  Cosmo  and  Damiano  on 
the  Eoman  Forum,  has  a sixth  century  mosaic  of  the 
Savior  as  Judge,  in  colossal  proportions,  which  is  the 
grandest  existing  work  of  early  Christian  art.  The 
church  of  Saint  Sophia  at  Constantinople  (now  a mosque) 
has  mosaics  entirely  filling  its  dome,  but  these  have 
been  whitewashed  by  the  Turks  and  are  not  visible. 

Aside  from  the  cities  or  churches  mentioned,  remains 
of  early  church  mosaics  are  almost  unknown,  although 
there  were  once  many  of  them  in  Europe.  The  art 
declined  rapidly  after  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries. 

The  causes  of  this  decline  were  especially  the  inde- 
pendent developments  of  native  talent  in  Western 
Europe  after  this  date  and  the  abandonment  of  the  habit 
of  employing  the  Byzantine  workmen  who  were  fa- 
miliar with  the  art.  Fresco  paintings  then  took  the 
place  of  mosaics  both  in  Northern  and  Southern  Europe, 
and  almost  nothing  was  attempted  in  this  Ene  in  Italy 
after  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  the 
rise  of  the  school  of  wall  painting  headed  by  Giotto. 
Survivals  of  the  art  at  a later  date,  as,  for  instance,  in 
the  decorations  of  St.  Peter’s  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
do  not  remotely  compare  in  efi’ect  with  the  Byzantine 
works,  as  they  were  imitations  of  the  style  of  the  oil 


THE  BYZANTINE  ART. 


109 


paintings  of  the  same  date.  A realistic  pictorial  style  is 
inconsistent  with  the  conditions  of  wall  decoration  be- 
cause the  shadings  and  transitions  of  color  prevent 
contrast  and  the  objects  taken  in  mass,  being  too  numer- 
ous and  too  much  detailed,  lose  the  necessary  effects  of 


Fig.  63.— Byzantine  Mosaic.  The  Day’  of  Pentecost. 

Tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  Ravenna.  Fifth  Century. 

dimension,  simplicity,  and  balance.  In  mosaic  there 
is  the  farther  necessary  and  natural  limitation  inherent 
in  the  coarse  material  and  in  the  size  of  the  individ- 
ual cubes  of  which  the  picture  was  composed.  ISio  effort 
was  made  in  the  Byzantine  style  to  refine  the  picture 
beyond  the  natural  limitations  of  the  material  used  and 
this  is  their  great  decorative  merit.  Fig.  62  illustrates 
this  frank  exhibition  of  the  material. 

There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  stiffness,  rigidity. 


110 


eo:man  aa'd  medieval  aet. 


and  formalism  of  Byzantine  art  were  exaggerated  and 
perpetuated  by  tbe  methods  of  the  mosaic  style,  which 
subsequently  reacted  on  the  minor  arts.  Byzantine  oil 
paintings  are  often  obvious  imitations  of  the  mosaic 
style  (Fig.  G4). 

It  is  from  this  point  of  view  therefore  that  the  topic 
of  Byzantine  painting  is  best  approached.  The  subjects 
were  invariably  religious  and  treated  traditionally.  The 
illustration  represents  the  type  of  panel  pictures  which 
were  general  in  Italy  until  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  art  of  the  Greek  church  in  Eastern  Mediterranean 
countries  has  perpetuated  this  style  down  to  the  present 
century.  It  still  survives  also  in  Eussia,  which  obtained 
its  civilization,  art,  and  religion  from  the  Byzantine 
state.  Sculiiture,  as  practiced  for  life-size  figures,  was 
almost  absolutely  unknown  to  Byzantine  art,  which 
shared  the  helplessness  and  in- 
capacity of  all  early  Christian  times 
in  this  sense.  But  there  was  also 
at  one  period  of  Byzantine  history 
a movement  in  the  Greek  church 
which  was  headed  and  iiromoted 
by  certain  emjDerors  (the  icono- 
clasts, or  image-breakers)  which 
antagonized  the  use  of  images  in 
churches,  paintings  included.  As 
a theory  enforced  by  law  or  re- 
ligious zeal  the  iconoclast  move- 
ment was  not  lasting ; but,  in 
matter  of  fact,  the  Byzantine  art  only  practiced  sculpture 
of  the  human  figure  in  exceptional  cases. 

It  is  mainly  in  relief  carvings,  which,  approximate  to 
pictorial  art,  that  the  art  of  sculpture  is  found — in  wood 


Fig.  64.— Byzantine  Ma- 
donna OF  A Type  Com- 
mon IN  Italy. 


THE  BYZANTINE  ART. 


Ill 


carving,  in  ivory  carving,  and  in  worked  metal.  These 
materials  were  variously  employed  for  caskets,  espe- 
cially reliquaries,  shrines,  altars,  book  covers,  triptychs, 
etc.  The  triptychs  were  small  altars  with  folding  panels 
or  wings,  used  for  private  devotion. 

The  foregoing  historical  accounts  of  the  German  in- 
vasions and  Germanic  states,  of  the  Byzantine  Empire, 
and  of  the  general  conditions  of  civilization  in  Eastern 
and  "Western  Europe,  as  assisted  by  the  illustrations,  will 
give  a fair  idea  of  the  medieval  art  of  design  between 
the  fifth  and  the  eleventh  centuries  (500-1000  A.  D.). 
No  general  account  of  this  time  would,  however,  be 
complete,  which  did  not  emphasize  the  importance  of 
Irish  civilization  and  of  the  influence  of  the  Irish 
monks  in  England,  France,  and  Germany.  During  the 
invasions  Ireland  became  the  refuge  of  the  art  and 
learning  of  Western  Europe  ; for  this  island  escaped  the 
terrors  of  invasion  and  consequently  became  a center  for 
the  diffusion  of  later  civilization  in  Europe,  only  second 
in  importance  to  the  Byzantine  Empire.  Otherwise,  it 
may  be  said  of  this  period  that  the  forces  of  civilization 
in  Western  Europe  were  weakest  in  Italy,  because  the 
ruin  of  the  old  culture  was  most  sensibly  felt  there  and 
that  they  were  strongest  (outside  of  Ireland)  in  the 
Frankish  state,  which  finally  rose  to  a territorial  power 
under  the  Emperor  Charlemagne  (ninth  century)  which 
reached  to  the  Elbe,  to  the  borders  of  Bohemia  and 
Hungary  in  Germany,  to  the  Ebro  in  Spain,  and  which 
included  the  greater  part  of  Italy. 


CHAPTEE  III. 

EARLY  CHRISTIAJSr  ARCHITECTURE. 

We  have  so  far  left  unconsidered  the  most  interest- 
ing and  the  most  important  department  of  the  art 
history  of  the  early  Middle  Ages,  viz.  : its  architecture. 
There  are  no  remains  of  any  buildings  in  Northern 
Europe,  preceding  the  Roman  period,  unless  the  open- 
air  temple  inclosures  of  the  older  Celtic  time,  like 
Stonehenge  on  Salisbury  plain  in  England,  should  be 
considered  as  buildings.  We  have  seen  what  monu- 
ments of  architecture  were  universal  in  certain  European 
countries  under  the  empire,  and  we  have  seen  that  two 
centuries  of  church  building  had  passed  away  in  direct 
development  from  the  Roman  classic  art  before  the 
downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  west. 

The  changes  in  architectural  style  which  are  apparent 
after  the  triumph  of  Christianity  in  the  empire  were 
not  less  marked  than  those  which  affected  the  arts  of 
design.  It  is  true  that  we  can  hardly  point  to  a 
surviving  church  in  A^orthern  Europe  of  earlier  date 
than  the  eleventh  century.  Crypts  (underground 
chapels)  or  small  portions  of  churches  built  into  later 
ones  are  occasionally  met  with.  The  chapel  built  by 
Charlemagne  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  Germany,  now  a 
portion  of  the  later  cathedral,  and  one  or  two  oratories 
(small  churches)  in  Ireland  are  among  the  rare  excep- 

112 


EAELY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


113 


tions.  But  certain  surviving  churches  of  Italy  enable  us 
to  picture  the  general  style  and  arrangements  of  build- 
ings which  have  disappeared. 

Aside  from  the  Church  of  the  Manger  at  Bethlehem 
and,  possibly,  the  Dome  of  the  Eock  at  Jerusalem, 
now  known  as  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  whose  date  is  not 
absolutely  certain,  our  references  for  churches  between 
the  fourth  and  ninth  centuries,  inclusive,  are  mainly 
confined  to  Eome  and  Eavenna.  The  chief  exception  is 


Fig.  65.— San  Lokbnzo.  Rome.  Sixth  Century. 

the  most  important  building  of  all,  the  Church  of  St. 
Sophia  at  Constantinople,  which  has  been  a mosque 
since  the  Turkish  conquest  of  1453.  There  are  also 
interesting  ruins  of  ancient  churches  in  Armenia,  in 
Northern  Syria,  and  in  the  East  Jordan  country. 


114 


KOMAJi'  AXD  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


As  regards  the  ancient  surviving  churches  of  Eome  it 
must  he  said  that  those  which  have  preserved  their  old 
appearance  are  comparatively  unimportant  in  respect  to 
size  or  decorative  details.  Others  of  larger  size  and 
greater  fame  have  been  so  transformed  by  the  restora- 
tions, rebuilding,  and  would-be  improvemeuts  of  later 


Fig.  66.— San  Apollinabe  Nuovo.  Ravenna.  Sixth  Century. 

date  that  they  have  absolutely  no  value  as  archteologic 
references. 

It  is  in  Eavenna  that  the  most  interesting  survivals  of 
the  early  Christian  buildings  of  Europe  are  preserved. 
This  town,  which  is  situated  on  the  upper  Adriatic  shore 
of  Italy,  is  surrounded  by  a swampy  territory  which  has 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


115 


tended  to  isolate  it  from  the  commerce  and  intercourse  of 
later  times.  It  has  been  a poor  city,  without  enterprise, 
and  consequently  without  the  wealth  which  in  other 
quarters  has  inspired  the  destruction  of  the  ancient 
buildings,  either  by  reconstructions  and  restorations  of 
them  or  by  actual  displacement  in  favor  of  new  ones. 


Fig.  07.— San  ApoiiLiNARB  in  Classe.  Ravenna.  Sixth  Century. 

It  is  significant  of  this  general  law  that  the  cathedral 
church  of  Ravenna  is  a modern  building,  but  the  ‘‘im- 
provement” of  Ravenna,  fortunately  for  the  history 
of  art,  stopped  here.  The  situation  which  in  later  times 
has  made  Ravenna  poor  was  once  the  cause  of  her  pros- 
perity. In  the  convulsions  of  the  fifth  century,  when 
the  western  emperors  had  successively  abandoned 


116 


EOilAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


Eome  and  Milan  as  their  capitals,  Eavenna  was  chosen  as 
their  final  post  of  refuge  and  defense  and  consequently 
became  an  important  connecting  link  with  East  Eome 
and  with  Byzantine  art  and  civilization.  In  the  early 
sixth  century  it  was  the  seat  of  the  Ostro-Gothic  Empire 
of  Theodoric  the  Great,  and  in  the  later  sixth  century  it 
was  the  capital  of  Justinian’s  rule  in  Italy.  Eavenna 
then  became  the  head  of  that  “exarchate  of  Eavenna” 
whose  territories  continued  Byzantine  until  the  time 
of  the  Frankish  king,  Pepin,  the  father  of  Charlemagne. 
Pepin  gave  them  to  the  popes  and  thus  founded  the 
“States  of  the  Church”  and  the  papal  temporal  power. 

There  are  three  Eavenna  churches  of  the  sixth  century 
which  are  especially  important  buildings  for  the  history 
of  art — San  Apollinare  Ifuovo,  San  Apollinare  in  Classe, 
and  San  Vitale.  Some  of  their  mosaics  have  been 
already  mentioned  (Figs.  61,  62).  We  will,  however, 
not  consider  these  buildings  in  detail  aside  from  a 
general  account  of  the  system  of  other  churches  which 
they  have  survived  to  illustrate. 

There  were  two  distinct  types  of  churches  in  use 
during  the  centuries  before  the  Eomanesque  cathedrals, 
whose  history  begins  after  the  year  1000  A.  D.  One 
was  a continuation  of  the  type  of  the  Eoman  business 
exchange,  or  basilica  (p.  55)  ; the  other  was  a continu- 
ation of  the  type  of  the  great  domed  apartments  of  the 
Eoman  baths  (p.  53).  The  former  is  the  type  which 
developed  into  the  later  medieval  cathedrals,  and  on 
this  account  may  be  given  the  first  notice. 

It  is  in  the  plan  of  these  buildings  rather  than  in  their 
details  or  style  of  ornament  that  the  Eoman  system  sur- 
vived. We  have  one  ancient  building  in  Eome.  the 
Triumphal  Arch  of  Constantine,  which  shows  that  the 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


117 


Eoman  system  of  engaged  exterior  classic  columns  and 
entablatures  was  used  in  Italy  in  the  fourth  century,  but 
there  are  no  Christian  churches  which  show  any  sur- 
vivals of  this  system  of  ornament.  Their  exterior  walls 
are  of  plain  masonry,  broken  only  by  windows  and 
occasionally  relieved  by  blind  arcades.* 

The  particular  constructive  system  of  the  pagan  Eo- 
man basilicas  which 
was  continued  by  the 
Christian  churches 
was  not  like  that  of 
the  Basilica  of  Con- 
stantine (Fig.  32),  one 
of  vaulted  ceilings  of 
masonry  or  concrete. 

The  church  basilicas 
were  timber  roofed. 

This  is  one  of  the  im- 
portant points  in 
which  they  differ  from 
the  typical  Eoman- 
esque  cathedrals, 
which  were  vaulted. 

Such  a timber- roofed 
basilica,  whose  broken 
columns  are  one  of 
the  ruins  of  Eome,  Fia.  gs.-san  apollinake  nuovo. 

^ Ravenna.  Sixth  Century. 

was  the  one  built  by 

the  Eoman  Emperor  Trajan. 

The  ground  plan  of  a Eoman  basilica  was  oblong  and 
rectangular,  with  longitudinal  divisions  into  a central 


* Blmd  arcades  are  simulated  arches  ■with  simulated  narrow  pier  supports. 
These  admit  elsewhere  of  a slighter,  thinner  wall  construction.  See  Fig.  69. 


118 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


nave  and  side  aisles  and  terminating  in  a semicircular 
apse,  or  large  niche,  facing  the  entrance.  This  apse  was 
the  seat  of  the  Eoman  magistrate  and  was  allotted  with 
the  adjacent  portion  of  the  building  to  the  uses  of  a 
court  of  justice.  It  was  parted  from  the  rest  of  the 


Fig.  60. — San  Apollinake  in  Classe.  Ravenna.  Sixth  Century. 

building  by  a transverse  row  of  columns.  These  columns 
are  not  found  in  the  church  basilicas,  which  devoted 
this  part  of  the  building  to  the  altar,  to  the  officiating 
clergy,  and  to  the  bishop.  In  the  times  of  the  invasions 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


11& 


the  bishop  of  the  city  took  the  place  of  the  earlier 
Roman  magistrate  in  many  senses  and  there  was  a 
certain  continuity  of  history  in  this  arrangement. 

The  apse  is  thus  the  origin  of  the  choir  of  the  cathe- 
dral, which  finally  reached  enormous  dimensions  in  the 
period  of  the  Gothic. 

The  division  of  the  nave  and  aisles  is  also  one  of  great 
importance  in  the  plan  of  the  later  cathedrals.  This 
results  from  the  higher  elevation  of  the  nave  as  ar- 
ranged for  the  convenience  of  lighting  the  structure 
from  above  ; for  it  is  the  supports  of  the  nave  which  con- 
stitute the  division.  The  arrangement  is  additionally 
explained  by  its  convenience  for  roofing  wide  structures 
with  timber  beams. 

If  it  be  asked  why  the  plan  of  a business  exchange 
was  adopted  for  churches,  we  can  only  answer  that 
the  pagan  basilicas  were  places  of  large  public  concourse, 
such  as  were  also  needed  in  Christian  worship  ; whereas 
the  temples  of  antiquity  were  shrines  for  statues  and  not 
intended  for  large  gatherings.  The  dimensions  of  the 
antique  temple  were  much  increased  by  the  exterior 
porticoes,  but  the  interiors  were  not  generally  of  large 
dimensions.  It  was  therefore  the  interior  dimensions 
of  the  basilica  which  caused  its  plan  to  be  chosen 
for  churches. 

The  supporting  system  of  the  church  basilicas  is 
one  which  was  only  known  in  very  late  Roman  buildings 
and  there  is  only  one  Roman  ruin  in  Europe  which  now 
exhibits  it — the  palace  of  Diocletian  at  Spalatro.  The 
supports  were  columns  connected  with  arches.  In  ancient 
Roman  use  arches  were  supported  by  j^iers,  built  of 
aggregated  masonry,  and  the  columns  and  entablatures 
were  ornamental  surface  additions  (Figs.  14,  18,  33). 


120 


EOMAX  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


Columns,  when  used  in  actual  constructioga,  always 
supported  the  straight  stone  beam,  or  lintel  (Figs.  27, 
28,  31),  as  was  the  method  of  the  Greeks. 

The  use  of  the  column  and  the  arch  to  support  the 
walls  of  the  nave  (Figs.  66,  67)  is  not  absolutely  uni- 
versal in  the  ancient  churches.  One  or  two  of  the 
earlier  churches  of  Eome  employ  the  straight  beam, 

as  does  also  the 
Church  of  the  Man- 
ger at  Bethlehem, 
but  the  beams  are 
not  detailed  in  the 
architrave  and  frieze 
divisions  of  the  clas- 
sic entablature.  In 
these  exceptional 
uses  of  the  lintel  we 
note  a survival  of 

fig.  70. -SAN  VITALE.  Ravenna.  antique  traditions. 

sixth  Century.  which  soon  yielded 

to  the  new  system  aud  absolutely  disappeared.  The 
construction  of  arches  and  columns  was  ultimately 
abandoned  in  the  Eomanesque  and  Gothic  systems  for 
arches  and  piers.  Thus  we  emphasize  the  use  of  the  arch 
and  column  and  the  use  of  the  timber  ceiling  as  im- 
portant points  of  distinction  between  the  system  of  the 
later  cathedrals  and  the  system  of  the  basilicas. 

Finally,  the  origin  of  the  word  '^basilica”  and  its  trans- 
fer to  Christian  churches  are  matters  of  interest.  As  de- 
rived from  the  Greek  word  basileus  (king),  the  word 
basilica  (royal  house),  was  a fitting  designation  for  a 
church,  though  not  apparently  for  a business  exchange. 
It  was  first  used  in  Athens  and  was  there  applied  to  a 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


121 


public  building  which  had  been  named  after  one  of  the 
archons,  or  elective  officers,  who  retained,  the  title  of 
basileus,  after  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy,  an  event 
antedating  any  records  of  ancient  Athenian  history. 
His  office  was  judicial. 

The  bell  tower  of  the  early  churches  was  a distinct 
structure  (Figs.  68,  69).  It  was  subsequently  attached 
to  the  building  in  the  Eomanesque  period  and  was  often 
doubled  or  quadrupled.  It  then  developed  into  the 
Gothic  tower  or  spire  and  so  into  the  modern  steeple. 
Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  in  Italy,  however,  the  bell 
tower  was  generally  a separate  structure. 


CHAPTEE  IV. 


THE  DOME  CHETeCHES. 

The  important  early  surviving  illustrations  of  the 
dome  churches  are  the  chapel  built  by  Charlemagne, 
already  mentioned  (p.  112),  the  church  of  St.  Mark  at 
Venice  (p.  105,  Fig.  59),  the  church  of  San  Vitale  at 
Eavenna  (Fig.  70),  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constan- 
tinople, and  possibly  the  “Dome  of  the  Eock,”  or 
Mosque  of  Omar,  at  Jerusalem.  It  was  the  theory  of 
the  English  architect,  Fergusson,  that  this  building  was 
a Christian  church  of  the  fourth  century,  built  over  the 
supposed  site  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.*  The  present 
dome,  the  exterior  decoration  of  porcelain  tiles,  and  the 
inserted  pointed-arch  windows  are  Arab  reconstructions. 
The  Arian  Baptistery  at  Eavenna  (fifth  century)  and  the 
Baptistery  of  St.  John  Lateran  at  Eome  (fifth  century) 
are  smaller  buildings  of  the  same  general  type. 

Among  the  buildings  named  and  illustrated  those  are 
most  obviously  available  as  indications  of  the  type 
which  are  most  obviously  of  a radiating  plan.  The 
domed  ceiling  was  naturally  used  for  such  a building  and 
herein  lies  the  distinction  as  compared  with  the  long 
perspective  view  of  the  basilicas.  It  was  from  the  great 
domed  apartments  of  the  Eoman  baths  that  this  plan  of 

* The  site  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  is  not  supposed  by  any  critic  to  be  that 
of  the  present  church  of  the  name. 


122 


THE  DOME  CHURCHES. 


123 


construction  was  adopted  and  even  their  name  was  x’e^ 
tained.  They  were  called  baptisteries/’  that  is  to  say, 
baths ; and  the  title  of  baptistery,  or  bath,  survived  as 
applied  to  the  churches  copied  from  them. 

The  name  and  plan  subsequently  became  distinctive 


Fig.  71.— St.  Sophia.  Constantinople.  Sixth  Century. 


in  Italy  for  a building  specially  designed  and  used  for 
baptisms,  which  were  always  by  immersion  in  the  early 
church.  Each  Italian  city  of  the  Middle  Ages  pos- 
sessed one  of  these  buildings  which  we  must  carefully 
distinguish  from  the  baptistery  cJmrches.  These  were 
generally  abandoned  in  Western  Europe  after  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Eomanesque  period. 

By  its  grand  dimensions  and  grand  interior  eifect  the 
church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople  surpasses  all 


124 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


other  buildings  of  its  time  and  most  of  those  which  have 
followed  it.  It  was  built  in  the  sixth  century  by  the 
Emperor  Justinian.  The  height  of  the  main  dome  from 
the  floor  is  one  hundred  and  seventy-seven  feet,  its  di- 
ameter is  one  hundred  and  six  feet. 

It  is  probable  that  the  dome  was  more  commonly  em- 
ployed in  earlier  Oriental  buildings  than  the  actual  re- 
mains would  visibly  indicate,  and  this  view  has  been 
recently  much  advocated  by  experts  of  distinction. 
According  to  this  view  the  Eoman  use  of  the  dome 
would  go  back  to  Mesopotamian  originals,  which  con- 
tinued its  use  in  their  earlier  home  down  to  and  after  the 
Byzantine  period.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Byzantine 
architecture  especially  affected  the  dome,  and  that  in 
Western  Europe  its  use  was  continued  by  that  influence. 
As  visible  reminder  of  the  antique  originals  of  the 
form  we  are  confined  to  the  Pantheon  at  Borne,  which 
must  rank  with  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  as  one  of  the 
two  finest  dome  constructions  of  the  entire  world.  The 
merit  of  these  buildings  as  compared  with  later  ones 
which  have  used  the  dome,  like  St.  Peter’s  at  Borne,  St. 
Paul’s  in  London,  or  the  Cathedral  of  Florence,  is  that 
the  interior  effect  is  immeasurably  superior,  because  the 
domed  apartment  itself  constitutes  the  whole  interior. 
To  place  a dome  above  a portion  of  a cathedral,  as  done 
in  the  cases  just  mentioned,  may  or  may  not  add  to  the 
exterior  effect  in  adequate  proportion  to  the  expense  and 
effort  necessary  in  the  cases  named,  but  the  dome  is  lost 
for  an  interior  which  is  not  distinctly  planned  for  it. 
The  Pisa  Cathedral  is  by  far  the  finest  instance  of  a 
building  using  the  dome  in  combination  with  the  oblong 
cathedral  plan,  because  its  modest  proportions  do  not 
antagonize  the  main  plan. 


CHAPTEE  V. 


BYZANTINE  DETAILS*  AND  ORNAMENTAL  SYSTEM. 

In  the  early  Middle  Ages  the  classic  buildings  were 
plundered  for  their  columns  and  capitals  as  long  as  any 
could  be  found.  It  is  pure  chance  or  the  inexhaustible 
supply  of  ruins  in  certain  instances  (like  the  city  of 
Eome,  where  very  little  building  moreover  was  done  in 
the  later  Middle  Ages)  that  has  left  us  any  ruins  at  all. 
The  piecemeal  adaptation  of  the  old  material  to  new 
uses  is  found  in  many  places.  Besides  these  direct 
adaptations  of  classic  forms  new  ones  were  designed  in 
more  or  less  original  departures  from  them.  Capitals 
which  clearly  go  back  to  Corinthian  or  Ionic  originals 
are  found  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century.  All  of  these 
had  Byzantine  prototypes.  There  is,  however,  a dis- 
tinctive form  of  Byzantine  capital,  the  cube  form, 
expanding  from  the  neck  of  the  column  to  an  interme- 
diate supporting  member  (which  took  the  place  of  the 
ancient  abacus),  which  has  many  beautiful  variants. 
The  surface  ornaments  of  these  capitals,  like  other 
ornamental  Byzantine  details,  are  simplified  evolutions 
from  the  classic  scrolls,  spirals,  acanthus  leaves,  and 
trefoils,  which  they  frequently  also  repeat  in  very  obvi- 
ous derivative  forms.  There  are  many  beautiful  Byzan- 

♦ The  word  “detail”  is  applied  in  architectural  use  to  any  ornamental 
pattern  and  especially  to  architectural  carved  ornament. 

12,5 


126 


liOlIAX  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


tine  capitals  in  Eavenna^  in  Venice  (St.  Mark’s),  and  in 
Constantinople.  The  later  Eomanesque  churches  con- 
tinued many  of  their  forms  and  details.  The  true 
artistic  genius  of  the  Byzantine  art  is  nowhere  so  imme- 
diately obvious  as  in  its  architectural  ornament.  Its 
study  is  moreover  important  as  leading  to  the  compre- 
hension of  the  arabesque  (or  Moresque)  patterns,  which 
were  originally  based  upon  and  derived  from  it. 

Aside  from  decorative  sculptured,  or  stuccoed,  details 
the  Byzantine  churches  employed  a system  of  marble 
paneling,  in  which  the  slabs,  as  sawn  into  thin  pieces, 
were  so  fitted  together  as  to  form  a series  of  symmetrical 
patterns  from  the  veining  of  the  marble.  St.  Mark’s  at 
Venice  and  the  St.  Sophia  church  at  Constantinople 
show  the  finest  examples  of  this  work.  "When  we  add 


Fig.  72.— St.  Sophia.  Constantinople. 


Byzantine  AVelt,  Venice. 


BYZANTINE  DETAILS — OENAMENTAL  SYSTEM.  127 


the  effect  of  the  colored  mosaic  decorations  already 
described,  it  is  clear  that  Byzantine  architecture  was  a 
glorious  and  artistic  creation.  The  peculiar  failings  and 
limitations  of  the  figure  design,  when  compared  with 
the  perfection  of  Byzantine  decorative  art,  thus  appear 
more  clearly  to  be  due  to  general  historic  causes  and  are 
certainly  not  due  to  any  element  of  barbarism  or  natural 
ignorance,  for  we  know  in  many  ways  that  the  East 
Eoman  civilization  was  of  a highly  refined  and  elabo- 
rated character. 

As  regards  Western  Europe  in  general  it  will  be 
understood  tbat  the  models  furnished  by  Eavenna  and 
by  Venice  are  by  no  means  types  of  an  equal  perfection 
elsewhere.  These  cities  were  distinctly  connected  with 
Byzantine  civilization ; one  by  government  and  the 
other  by  commerce.  The  meaner  and  more  carelessly 
built  existing  ancient  churches  of  Eome  would  be  better 
examples  of  what  was  done  habitually  in  most  parts 
of  western  Christendom  between  the  fifth  and  eleventh 
centuries. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


MOHAMMEDAN  ART. 

As  FAR  as  Europe  was  concerned  before  the  fifteenth 
century,  when  the  Turkish  invasion  overran  its  eastern 
countries,  Mohammedan  art  was  confined  to  Spain  and 
Sicily.  The  Moors  were,  however,  not  expelled  from 
Granada  till  1492  and  meantime  their  art  had  con- 
siderably infiuenced  the  Spanish  Gothic. 

The  Crusaders  were  brought  in  contact  with  the  art  of 
Syria  and  Egypt  when  the  Arabs  and  Turks  were 
masters  of  these  countries  and  by  way  of  Sicily  also  the 
Arab  art  had  infiuence  on  Southern  Italy.  Some  slight 
mention  of  it  is  a proper  appendix  to  any  history  of 
Byzantine  art. 

It  was  in  the  seventh  century  that  the  Arabian  world, 
under  the  influence  of  the  teachings  of  Mohammed, 
began  its  career  of  foreign  conquest.  Of  Arab  art 
before  this  time  we  know  at  present  nothing.  It  was  in 
the  East  Roman  provinces  of  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Xorth 
Africa,  then  conquered,  that  the  earliest  Mohammedan 
art  developed  from  the  Byzantine.  The  mosques  were 
frequently  Christian  churches  transformed  to  this  use  or 
were  sometimes  copied  from  them.  The  Mosque  of 
Omar  at  Jerusalem  is  reputed  to  be  of  the  former 
class.  The  El  Aksa  Mosque  at  Jerusalem  is  known 
to  be  of  the  latter. 


128 


Capitals  and  Arabesques  from  the  Alhambra. 


Kgg 


MOHAMMEDAN  ART. 


129 


In  later  days  the  Turks,  who  became  the  military  force 
of  the  Arabs  and  then  converts  to  their  Arab  faith,  and 
subsequently  became  the  political  masters  of  their 


Fig.  73.— Mosque  el  Aksa.  Jerusalem. 

former  lords,  not  only  converted  the  St.  Sophia  Church 
to  their  own  worship  but  also  built  the  later  mosques 
of  Constantinople  on  modifications  of  its  plan.  It  was 
especially  the  Byzantine  art  of  Egypt  which  gave  the 
first  impulse  to  the  Arab.  In  Cairo,  where  we  find, 
aside  from  Damascus  and  Jerusalem,  the  most  accessible 
illustrations  of  the  early  Mohammedan  mosques,  an  open 
court  surrounded  by  arcades  was  the  plan  first  generally 
adopted.  Dome  buildings  surmounting  a cruciform  plan 
were  at  a later  day  the  ruling  type. 

In  these  constructions  and  in  their  ornament  the 


130 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


fanciful  and  imaginative  nature  of  Arab  art  wandered 
widely  from  Byzantine  types ; but  in  the  elements  of 
construction  and  in  the  elements  of  ornament  the 
original  forms  are  obvious.  Columns  and  capitals  were 
often  plundered  from  Byzantine  buildings  and  rarely  are 
devoid  of  Byzantine  reminiscence.  The  well-known 

law  of  Mohammed  for- 
bidding imitations  of 
human  or  animal  form 
in  art  found  no  ob- 
vious violations  in  the 
scrolls  and  trefoils  of 
the  East  Eoman  dec- 
orative system.  These 
were  the  originals  of 
most  of  the  patterns 
known  as  the  'Ara- 
besque. ’ ’ A distinc- 
tive form  of  ornament 
is  however  the  complicated  and  intricate  linear  system 
which  has  such  beautiful  examples  in  the  wood  carv- 
ings of  latticed  windows  and  on  surface  panels.  It  is 
said  that  all  the  decorative  works  of  the  Arabs  in  Egypt 
were  mainly  executed  by  the  Copts,  the  native  Christian 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  it  has  been  suggested 
that  the  initiative  here  was  also  thus  derived.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  Byzantine  Egypt  was  the  first  important 
art  school  of  the  Arabs. 

The  minaret,  or  tower  from  which  the  worshiper  was 
summoned  to  his  prayers,  was  also  an  original  archi- 
tectural form. 

By  way  of  North  Africa  and  the  straits  of  Gibraltar 
the  Arabs  invaded  Spain  at  the  opening  of  the  eighth 


MOHAMMEDAN  ART. 


131 


century,  and  for  a time  became  masters  of  nearly  the  en- 
tire country.  Their  first  onset  carried  them  as  far 
as  Southern  France.  The  Moors  of  North  Africa  were 
their  converts  and  attendants  and  there  is  little  dis- 
tinction to  be  drawn  in  Spain  between  them.  As 
ultimately  confined  to  the  province  of  Granada  the  Arab 
culture  has  left  its  most  famous  monument  in  the  palace 
of  the  Alhambra  (thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries). 
The  great  Mosque  of  Cordova,  the  Alcazar  of  Seville, 
and  the  great  tower  (minaret)  known  as  the  Giralda, 
in  Seville,  are  otherwise  the  most  quoted  survivals  of 
their  Spanish  archi- 
tecture. 

Aside  from  their 
new  developments  of 
surface  ornament  the 
originality  of  the 
Arab  architecture 
shows  itself  in  the  em- 
ployment  of  the 
pointed  and  of  the 

horseshoe”  arch. 

These  forms  were 
most  consonant  with 
the  light  and  airy 
nature  of  their  con- 
structions, which 
were  frequently  of  a 
somewhat  flimsy  char- 
acter. It  is  probable  that  the  suggestion  for  the  use  of 
the  pointed  arch  passed  into  the  later  Gothic  style 
through  the  contact  of  the  Crusaders  with  the  Saracenic 
buildings  of  the  East  and  through  the  amalgamation  of 


132 


EOMAK  AND  3IEDIEVAL  ART. 


the  Arab  and  Christian  art,  which  was  especially  appar- 
ent in  Sicily.  The  Arabs  had  conquered  Sicily  in  the 
eighth  century  but  were  displaced  by  the  Iformans  as  a 
political  power  in  the  eleventh  century.  As  late  as  the 
thirteenth  century,  when  Sicily  became  for  a time  a 
territory  of  the  Hohenstaufen  Germanic  emperors,  the 
Saracenic  culture  was  favored  here  by  the  liberality  of 
the  Emperor  Frederic  II.  The  Cathedral  of  Palermo  is 
a famous  survival  of  the  amalgamated  style  resulting 
from  this  contact. 

In  general  the  influence  of  the  Arabs  in  Europe  was 

most  apparent  in  the 
matter  of  tiles  and 
enameled  clay,  in  the 
manufacture  of  tex- 
tiles, and  in  the  dif- 
fusion of  the  patterns 
which  they  habitually 
used  in  them.  The 
word  ' ‘ ]Maj  olica  ’ ’ still 
bears  witness  to  the 
importation  into  Italy 
of  the  arts  of  enamel- 
ing or  glazing  pottery 
from  the  island  of 
Majorca  during  its 
Arab  period.  The 
common  glazed  wares 

Fig.  76. — Hall  of  Justice  axd  Couet  of  Spain  Still  show 
OF  THE  lions.  Alhambra.  universally  the  3Io- 

resque  influence,  which  has  thus  penetrated  in  modern 
times  even  to  the  similar  manufactures  of  ^Mexico  and 
of  South  America.  The  earliest  medieval  manufactures 


MOHAMMEDAN  ART. 


133 


of  silts  and  velvets  in  Europe  were  at  Lucca  in  Italy, 
where  they  were  introduced  from  Sicily  and-  from  other 
Oriental  sources.  Many  of  our  modern  textile  patterns 
still  hear  witness  to  this  history  of  the  art.  The  im- 
portations of  the  Ve- 
netians into  Europe  of 
Oriental  stuffs  had  a 
no  less  important  in- 
fluence. 

The  building  which 
best  bears  witness  in 
our  time  to  the  beauty 
of  Arab  tile  deco- 
ration is  the  Mosque 
of  Omar,  at  Jerusa- 
lem, whose  exterior  is 
still  entirely  covered 
with  enameled  tiles  in 
blue  and  green  orna- 
ment. This  art  was 
obtained  partly  i n 
Byzantine  Egypt  and 
partly  in  Persia.  The 
Mesopotamian  coun- 
tries were  also  conquered  by  the  Mohammedans  in  the 
seventh  century.  In  these  Persian  territories  a bastard 
classic  art  had  prevailed  since  the  fourth  century  B.  C. 
This  had  amalgamated  in  later  centuries  with  the 
Byzantine,  each  reacting  on  the  other.  The  technical 
perfection  of  tile  decoration  was  however  a native 
Mesopotamian  art,  since  the  days  of  the  Chaldeans, 
and  has  especially  spread  from  this  quarter,  through 
Arab  transmission,  to  the  modern  world. 


CHAPTEE  VII. 

THE  ROHANESQtTE  PERIOH. 

The  main  periods  of  the  art  of  the  Middle  Ages  are 
three  in  number  and  these  periods  are  especially  appar- 
ent in  architecture.  They  are  consequently  named  in 
general  according  to  the  architectural  divisions.  The  art 
of  architecture  will  be  always  found  to  be  the  dominant 
one  in  history  and  as  far  as  classifications  and  system- 
atic conceptions  are  concerned  it  is  always  necessary 
to  move  from  it.  According  to  this  system  the  Gothic 
period  is  the  latest  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  its  centuries 
are  in  round  numbers  those  between  1200  and  1500 
A.  D.  The  period  intervening  between  the  Byzantine 
or  Early  Christian  and  the  Gothic  will  therefore  be  the 
two  centuries  from  1000  to  1200  A.  D. 

As  regards  the  designation  of  the  first  period  it  will 
be  understood  that  Byzantine  style  long  outlasted  the 
eleventh  century  in  Eastern  Europe.  It  was  in  the  first 
place  coexistent  with  the  empire  from  which  it  derives 
its  name,  which  lasted  till  1453.  It  was  subsequently 
practiced  by  the  Christians  of  the  East  under  Turkish 
rule,  and  in  Eussian  art  it  was  the  main  factor  until  the 
nineteenth  century.  In  Western  Europe,  on  the  other 
hand,  Byzantine  art  was  not  universally  practiced  be- 
fore the  eleventh  century,  although  it  was  universally 
influential,  and  no  high  technical  perfection  was  reached 

134 


Fig.  78.— South  Aisle.  X^eterborough 


136 


Ro:\rA]sr  and  :jrEDiEVAD  art. 


without  it.  The  matter  of  fact  of  history  on  this  point 
has  been  stated  on  p.  100.  There  were,  aside  from 
Byzantine  influences,  those  which  moved  directly  from 
the  old  Western  Eoman  Christian  art  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries,  and  there  were  the  various  semi-barbaric 
modifications  of  both.  The  most  exact  general  title  for 
the  period  between  the  fifth  and  eleventh  centuries  in 
Western  Europe  (500-1000  A.  D.),  would  be  ‘‘Early 
Christian  and  Byzantine.” 

The  word  Romanesque  will  be  explained  when  we 
take  up  the  architecture  of  the  time.  Meantime  we  will 
accept  it  and  after  making  the  necessary  historic  sum- 
mary we  will  deal  with  Romanesque  art  as  a whole, 
seeking  first  in  the  figure  designs  the  connection  and 
contrast  with  the  earlier  time. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  actual  history  there  are  no  divisions 
of  periods — there  is  only  a continuous  chain  of  events 
which  is  reflected  in  the  works  of  man.  After  given 
intervals  of  more  or  less  duration  we  can  distinguish 
very  obvious  revolutions  and  changes  which  lead  us  to 
coin  words  to  characterize  them,  and  we  are  then  obliged 
to  notice  in  general  the  more  obvious  signs  of  the  ap- 
proaching change  which  have  been  first  observed  in  its 
entire  later  result.  It  is  according  to  these  signs  of  an 
approaching  change  that  the  opening  date  of  an  art 
period  is  fixed.  All  divisions  of  periods  are  conse- 
quently arbitrary  in  one  sense  and  the  transitions  and 
connecting  links  which  are  the  most  interesting  features 
of  every  evolution  are  naturally  the  points  most  to  be 
emphasized  at  the  beginning  of  what  we  call,  for  our 
own  purposes  of  convenience,  a new  period. 

Stated  broadly,  the  essential  character  of  the  Roman- 
esque period  is  its  effort  to  be  itself,  its  effort  to  study 


Romanesque  Enameled  Silver  Relic  Chests,  in  the  Cathedral 
Treasury,  Hildesheim. 


{• 


THE  ROMANESQUE  PERIOD. 


137 


nature  independent  of  traditional  forms  in  design,  its 
effort  to  solve  new  architectural  problems  and  meet  new 
conditions  of  life  in  an  independent  and  original  way. 

It  is  always  in  political  and  first  of  all  in  social  life 
that  a revolution  in  art  is  effected.  The  forms  of  art 
are  the  expression  and  result  of  these  conditions. 

In  general  history  we  seize  upon  the  career  of  Charle- 
magne and  on  the  his- 
tory of  his  time  (ninth 
century^  he  was 
crowned  emperor  at 
Eome  in  the  year  800) 
as  leading  up  to  the 
changes  which  we 
distinguish  in  the 
eleventh  century. 

The  Frankish  Ger- 
manic state,  which 
was  founded  by  the 
barbaric  war  chieftain 
Clovis  in  Northern 
France  and  Southern 
Belgium  * after  481 
A.  D.,  had  gradually 

, Fig.  79.— Cathedral  oe  Mainz. 

in  some  cases,  and 

rapidly  in  others,  absorbed  all  the  territories  and  tribes 
covered  by  the  history  of  the  German  invasions,  f ex- 
cepting England,  Spain,  and  South  Italy,  when  Charle- 
magne became  its  monarch.  It  is  then,  broadly  speak- 
ing, the  whole  of  Central  Europe  which  was  in  question  ; 

* The  separation  of  the  boundaries  of  those  modern  states  naturally  did 
not  then  exist. 

t Reference  to  pp.  93-99,  is  here  suggested. 


138 


liOMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


bordered  by  Spain  on  tbe  one  side  and  by  the  Elbe  and 
the  frontiers  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary  on  the  other. 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy  were  thus  the  countries  of 
his  empire,  which  even  reached  to  the  Ebro  in  Spain. 

At  this  time  most  of  the  rest  of  Spain  was  Arabian, 
and  the  Anglo-Saxons  of  England  were  so  overrun  by 
Danish  barbarism  that  they  are  hardly  to  be  considered 
as  within  the  pale  of  civilization.  The  territories  of 
Charlemagne  therefore  included  all  that  were  distinctly 
those  of  West  European  civilization. 

Meantime  dissensions  between  the  bishop  of  Eome 
(the  pope)  and  his  political  rulers,  the  Byzantine 
emperors,*  combined  with  the  inability  of  these  rulers 
to  protect  him  from  the  incursions  of  the  barbaric 
German  Lombards  who  were  settled  in  Italy,  led  to  an 
alliance  between  the  Frankish  state  and  the  Pope.  The 
Roman  Empire  of  the  West  was  thus  revived.  Charle- 
magne was  crowned  emperor  of  the  west  by  Pope  Leo 
III. 

The  theory  of  this  proceeding  was  that  the  Roman 
imperial  power  of  the  west  had  been  only  in  abeyance, 
and  this  theory  Avas  consistent  with  the  fact  that  many 
of  the  German  chieftains  of  the  time  of  the  invasions 
had  nominally  or  actually  professed  themselves  subjects 
either  of  the  western  or  eastern  emperor.  The  differ- 
ence lay  in  the  changed  conditions  of  the  actual  civiliza- 
tion of  the  Middle  Ages  when  power  had  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  feudal  chieftains,  the  descendants  of  the 
minor  German  warriors  and  chiefs,  whose  great  terri- 
tories and  consequent  practical  independence  of  any 
superior  monarchical  or  imperial  power  made  a revival 
of  the  old  Roman  Empire  impossible.  The  theory  was 

* Rome  had  belonged  to  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna  (p.  116). 


Fig.  80.— Cathedral  of  Speyer. 


IBTirtiiiiitiitrfii-r 


140 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


notwithstanding  put  into  practice  as  far  as  circum- 
stances and  events  allowed.  For  the  lifetime  of  Char- 
lemagne it  was  fairly  realized  in  the  territories  named. 

A triple  territorial  division  of  his  empire  among 
his  grandsons  set  the  imperial  theory  adrift  in  conflict 
with  actualities ; but  it  was  again  revived  by  the 
German  kings  of  the  Saxon  Dynasty  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury. These  now  became  as  “Emperors  of  the  "West” 
the  greatest  potentates  of  Christendom.  Western 
France  was  left  to  struggle  with  Northern  (Norman) 
invasions  ; but  Eastern  and  Southern  France  were  por- 
tions of  this  empire,  Italy  belonged  to  it ; Denmark, 
Poland,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary  yielded  to  its  sway. 

All  these  political 
facts  rest  on  a greater 
fact,  which  is  that  the 
civilization  of  Ger- 
many had  risen  to  a 
point  where  it  could 
and  did  assert  itself, 
to  a point  where  it 
was  the  vital  and  the 
active  center  of  Euro- 
pean  history.  The 
tenth,  eleventh,  and 
twelfth  centuries  were 
thus  the  great  days  of 
the  Germanic  em- 
perors of  the  Saxon, 
Franconian,  and  Ho- 
henstaufen  Dynasties 
— powerful  kings  of 
Germany  at  least,  emperors  of  Western  Christendom  in 


THE  EOMANESQUE  PEEIOD. 


141 


title,  actually  rulers  of  Italy,  with.  German  boundaries 
which  then  included  the  Tyrol  and  Switzerland,  modern 
Holland,  and  Belgium,  and  as  much  of  France  as  lay 
east  of  the  Ehone  or 
of  the  continuation  of 
its  main  line  to  the 
north. 

It  was  in  these 
countries  that  the 
great  Eomanesque 
cathedrals  were  built 
as  results  of  this  pros- 
perity and  power,  and 
it  is  especially  the 
cathedrals  of  South- 
ern France,  and  of  the 
Ehine  at  Speyer, 

Worms,  and  Mainz 
which  perpetuate  the 
memory  of  these  cen- 
turies. Otherwise  the 
Cathedral  of  B a m - 
berg  (Bavaria)  and  the  churches  of  Hildesheim  are 
among  the  most  important  Eomanesque  monuments  of 
Germany.  In  Italy  the  Cathedral  of  Pisa  is  the  great- 
est of  its  age. 

In  the  eleventh  century  the  Eormans  had  become  the 
greatest  power  in  Northern  France  and  their  churches 
at  Bayeux  and  Caen  are  consequently  among  the  most 
important. 

From  the  Normans  and  through  their  conquest  of  Eng- 
land at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century  the  Eoman- 
esque style  spread  to  England  where  it  is  frequently. 


142 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


thougli  erroneously,  named  the  ‘‘Iforman”  style.  It 
appears  at  Peterborough,  at  Hereford,  and  at  Durham, 
and  in  portions  of  the  cathedrals  of  ’^"inchester,  Can- 
terbury, Ely,  Norwich,  and  York ; but  there  are  very 
few  ‘‘Norman”  English  churches  or  cathedrals  which 
have  not  been  rebuilt  or  changed  by  later  additions. 

These  various  cathedrals  were  generally  decorated 
with  frescoes  of  which  the  remaining  fragments  are 
so  scanty  that  they  hardly  offer  even  the  material  for  a 
chronicle.  Those  surviving  in  St.  Michael’s  at  Hildes- 
heim  (twelfth  century)  are,  however,  of  marvelous 
power  and  artistic  quality.  Other  fine  wall  paintings 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  Church  of  St.  Savin  in  Poitou  and 
in  the  Church  of  Schwarz-Eheindorf  near  Cologne. 

In  Eomanesque  sculpture  Germany  generally  offers 
the  most  important  monuments.  The  earliest  are  the 
bronze  doors  of  the  Hildesheim  Cathedral.  Its  bronze 
font  and  chandelier  are  also  famous  relics.  The  cathe- 
dral sculptures  of  Freiberg  (Saxony)  and  of  Wechsel- 
burg  are  the  finest  works  of  Eomanesque  sculpture. 

Figs.  90,  91,  and  92  are  examples  bf  the  crude  but 
honest  efforts  of  the  early  Eomanesque  period  in  figure 
design.  Fig.  91  illustrates  dependence  on  Byzantine 
art  (compare  the  mosaics). 


CHAPTEE  VIII. 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  word  ‘ ‘ Eomanesque  ’ ’ does  not,  as  sometimes 
supposed,  refer  to  a debased  and  degraded  Eoman  style 
adopted  by  the  Middle  Ages,  but  rather  specifies  the  two 
traits  of  Eoman  architecture  which  were  re-employed 
at  this  time,  viz.,  the  pier  and  the  vaulting  arch.  All  the 
great  Eomanesque  cathedrals  of  North  Continental 
Europe  use  this  construction  and  are  distinguished  by  it 
from  the  earlier  basilicas  with  timber  roofs  and  with 
columns  supporting  the  arches  of  the  nave. 

Timber  ceilings  for  minor  churches  were  by  no  means 
abandoned  at  any  time.  In  Italy  they  continued  the 
rule  for  many  of  the  most  important  cathedrals  like 
that  of  Pisa.  None  of  the  Eomanesque  naves  were 
vaulted  in  England,  where  this  use  was  confined  to  the 
aisles.  Finally  the  earlier  churches  of  the  Eomanesque 
period  in  Northern  Europe  adhered  more  or  less  to 
basilica  methods  of  construction.  Notwithstanding  these 
exceptions,  it  is  the  pier  and  the  vaulting  which  distin- 
guish this  period  of  cathedral  building  as  a whole  and 
it  is  this  use  which  has  suggested  the  word  ‘‘Eoman- 
esque.’’ It  may  be  added  that  the  evolution  of  the 
Gothic  style  from  the  Eomanesque  was  absolutely  de- 
pendent on  a peculiar  development  of  this  construction. 
Hence,  above  all,  the  necessity  for  insisting  on  it  and 

143 


Fig.  83.— Mai>;z  Cathedkal. 


EOMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE. 


145 


understanding  it,  as  a necessary  preliminary  to  tlie  study 
of  this  later  style. 

As  far  as  our  illustrations  go,  the  character  of  a 
Eomanesque  vaulting  is  most  distinctly  illustrated  by 
the  view  of  one  of  the  aisles  of  Peterborough  (Pig.  78). 
The  vaultings  of  the  nave  are  also  shown  by  the 
views  of  the  Mainz  and  Speyer  Cathedrals  (Figs.  79,  80). 
The  contrast  with  a timber  ceiling  is  best  shown  by 


Fig.  84.— Worms  Catiiedbar. 


the  views  of  St.  Michael’s  at  Hildesheim  and  of  San 
Apollinare  Euovo  (Figs.  81,  66).  The  actual  construc- 
tion of  the  timber  framework  supporting  the  roof  when 
not  ceiled  in”  is  shown  by  the  Church  of  the  Manger 
(Fig.  50)  and  by  San  Apollinare  in  Classe  (Fig.  67). 

As  regards  the  distinction  between  a pier  and  a 
column  it  is  best  illustrated  in  a church  which  ex- 
hibits both.  Compare  the  view  of  St.  Michael’s  at 
Hildesheim  where  the  square  pier  and  the  round  column 


146 


EOMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


are  easily  contrasted  (Fig.  81,  or  compare  67,  80).  The 
shape  is  not,  however,  the  determining  point,  for  round 
piers  are  found  in  the  English  Eomanesque.  This 
appears  in  the  view  of  Hereford  Cathedral  (Fig.  82). 
Properly  speaking  the  pier  is  an  aggregation  of  masonry 
without  reference  to  shape,  as  visible  also  in  this  last 
case.  The  column  as  distinguished  from  the  pier  is 
a monolith  in  the  diameter  and  frequently  also  in  the 
perpendicular.  In  the  classic  columns  the  division  into 
‘‘drums”  or  sections  was  frequently  made  necessary 


Fig.  85.— Speyer  C.a.thedr.yl. 


by  the  great  perpendicular  dimensions.  In  the  columns 
of  medieval  churches,  which  were  almost  invariably 
taken  from  Eoman  ruins,  as  long  as  the  supply  lasted,  it 
appears  to  have  been  almost  invariably  the  entirely 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE. 


147 


monolithic  columns  which  were  chosen.  As  far  as  the 
Middle  Ages  are  concerned,  we  may  therefore  boldly 
define  the  column  as  a round  support  which  was  mono- 
lithic both  in  the  diameter  and  the  perpendicular,  and 
the  pier  as  a support  (sometimes  round)  which  was 
built  up  of  masonry. 

If  we  turn  now  to  the  Boman  ruins  (Figs.  32,  33) 
we  shall  see  that  the 
vaulting  arches  were 
invariably  supported 
by  such  masonry 
piers.  This  construc- 
tion is,  in  fact,  always 
necessary  when  a 
vaulting  is  employed, 
for  a column  is  too 
slender  a support  for 
the  superincumbent 
mass.  We  should 
therefore  conclude 
that  the  piers  of  the 
Eomanesque  cathe- 
drals were  made 
necessary  by  their 
vaulted  ceilings  and 
that  philosophically  we  ought  to  begin  our  explanations 
with  these.  It  should  be  added,  however,  that  practi- 
cally the  supply  of  ancient  columns  had  been  mainly  ex- 
hausted in  the  first  five  centuries  of  Christian  bnilding, 
and  that  a resort  to  masonry  piers  would  have  been 
natural  in  consequence,  to  a period  unaccustomed  to  the 
quarrying  of  columns.  Begarding  the  enormous  pres- 
sure of  the  stone  vaultings  and  the  great  strength  re- 


148 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


quired  to  resist  it,  we  have  an  especially  interesting 
illustration  in  an  English  ruin  of  the  Gothic  time  which 
shows  the  section  of  a vaulted  building. 

As  regards  the  general  reasons  for  the  introduction 
of  a vaulting  system  in  cathedrals  we  may  also  find 
the  most  obvious  illustrations  in  the  Gothic ; for  when 
the  Gothic  vaultings  (Figs.  98,  99,  100)  are  compared 
with  the  timber  ceilings  (Figs.  51,  00)  there  is  not 
the  slightest  difficulty  in  appreciating  their  artistic 
superiority  for  an  interior  effect.  The  same  point  holds 
of  the  Eomanesque  cathedral  interiors  like  Figs.  78,  79, 
although  the  contrast  may  be  slightly  less  obvious.  A 


Fig.  87.— Pisa  Cathedral,  Bell  Tower,  and  Baptistery. 

church  with  a vaulted  ceiling  is  obviously  of  one  solid 
material  throughout — walls,  roof,  and  columns  are  all  of 
stone.  There  is  not  the  sense  of  incongruity,  as  regards 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE. 


149 


durability  and  material,  between  two  parts  of  the  build- 
ings. Both  are  harmonized  into  one  mass  not  only 
as  regards  material  but  also  as  regards  lines  and  sur- 
faces. For  the  lines  and  surfaces  of  the  arch  unite 
insensibly  with  those  of  the  wall  and  the  pier.  The 
extra  height  obtained  by  the  arch  as  against  a flat 
ceiling  is  also  a point  to  be  considered.  A most  im- 


Fig.  88.— Pisa  Cathedral. 

portant  consideration  is  that  relating  to  possible  con- 
flagrations and  the  resulting  disaster  to  a timber-roofed 
building.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  occurrence  of  such 
destructions  by  Are  had  much  to  do  with  the  introduction 
of  the  vaultings. 

In  the  general  prosperity  and  power  of  the  Germanic 
Empire  we  have  already  found  the  material  causes  of 


150 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


a new  building  and  artistic  activity.  The  rivalry  of 
great  towns,  of  powerful  bisbops,  and  of  various  monas- 
tic orders — the  wish  of  the  emperors  to  leave  monu- 
ments of  their  greatness  to  future  ages,  all  conspired  to 
create  the  Eomanesque  style.  The  exteriors  when  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  old  basilicas  (Figs.  83,  81,  85) 
have  a manifestly  monumental  purpose.  The  spirit 


Fig.  89.  St.  Michael’s.  Lucca. 


of  pride  and  power,  of  ambition  and  successful  effort,  is 
apparent  in  them.  The  vigorous  Germanic  blood  had 
been  poured  into  the  veins  of  the  old  Eoman  Chris- 
tian civilization  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  and 
this  was  the  result. 

Out  of  the  simple  bell  tower  of  the  ancient  basilica 
had  grown  the  system  of  exterior  towers  shown  by 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE. 


151 


the  views  of  the  Speyer  and  Mainz  Cathedrals.  Over 
the  junction  of  the  nave  and  transept  was  generally 
raised  a dome  covered  by  a pointed  roof  (Fig.  83).  In 
the  Pisa  Cathedral  the  rounded  dome  construction  is, 
however,  also  apparent  on  the  exterior. 

The  surfaces  of  the  exterior  walls  were  broken  and 
spaced  by  pilasters.  Galleries  of  columns  and  arches 
were  constructed  on  the  towers  and  occasionally  on 
the  fagades  or  at  other  proper  points  of  the  upper  walls 
(Figs.  83,  84,  85).  The  lines  of  the  cornices  were 
decorated  with  small 
round  arches.  The 
portals,  especially  of 
the  later  Pomanesque, 
were  richly  o r n a - 
mented  with  carving 
and  recessed  with  col- 
umns and  concentric 
arches,  diminishing  in 
size  to  the  doorway 
(Fig.  86). 

It  is  necessary,  af- 
ter dwelling  on  these 
various  points,  to  con- 
sider the  ground 
plans  of  the  Eoman- 
esque  cathedrals. 

These  differed  from 
the  basilica  plan  by 
the  introduction  of 
the  transept  or  cross 


Fig.  90.— Ivoey  Cakved  Book  Cover. 
The  Deposition.  Hildesheim. 
Eleventh  Century. 

form.*  This  added  to  the  di- 


* It  appears  occasionally  in  a rudimentary  way  in  the  early  Christian 
basilicas. 


152 


ROMAjS'  axd  medieval  art. 


mensions  and  the  picturesque  effects  of  both  interior 
and  exterior.  The  choirs  were  considerably  enlarged 
(Fig.  83),  a development  from  the  apse  of  the  basilica. 
As  regards  the  division  of  nave  and  aisles  and  the  sys- 
tem of  lower  aisles,  bordering  the  nave  with  its  higher 
walls  and  upper  windows,  the  arrangement  of  the 
basilica  was  retained.  As  regards  plan  and  system 
these  cathedrals  were  therefore  a direct  evolution  from 
the  earlier  buildings,  with  increased  grandeur,  size, 
picturesque  effect,  and  a more  permanent  and  durable 
construction.  The  round  arch  was  employed  as  in 
the  preceding  period.  The  exterior  walls  were  massive 
and  the  Eomanesque  is  a fine  illustration  of  the  value, 
for  artistic  effect,  of  large  surfaces  of  masonry.  Its  re- 
cent employment  in  modern  revival  has  been  mainly 
promoted  by  an  artistic  taste  which  has  felt  the  value  of 
its  undecorated  masonry  surfaces  and  simple  masonry 
construction. 

Having  treated  the  Eomanesque  cathedral  as  a finished 
type,  we  may  now  consider  the  steps  of  transition  by 
which  it  was  reached.  As  regards  the  vaultings  they 
were  sometimes  at  first  only  attempted  in  the  side  aisles. 
We  have  seen  that  the  English  ‘^Xorman”  cathedrals 
stopped  short  at  this  point.  The  English  style  being 
one  of  foreign  introduction,  it  appears  that  the  tra- 
ditional national  habit  of  using  the  timbered  ceiling 
asserted  itself  in  this  matter  and  it  may  be  that  masons 
were  wanting  in  England  who  were  sufficiently  dextrous 
to  undertake  the  vaulting  of  a nave.  The  general 
backwardness  of  English  culture  at  this  date  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  Continental  Europe  is  undoubtedly  in 
one  way  or  another  the  explanation.  It  should  be  added 
that  the  important  building  activity  of  English  cathe- 


EOMANESQUE  AECHITECTUEE. 


153 


drals  as  compared  with  portions  of  the  continent  does 
not  begin  until  the  time  of  the  Gothic. 

Aside  from  the  tentative  introduction  of  vaulted  aisles 
as  forerunner  of  the  developed  Eomanesque,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  churches  of 
Southern  France  seem  to  have 
been  foremost  in  the  use  of 
vaultings  and  it  would  appear 
that  there  was  a traditional 
survival  here  of  the  old  Eo- 
man  practice.  There  are 
many  instances  in  this  part 
of  Europe  of  such  survivals 
of  Eoman  tradition. 

As  regards  the  piers  many 
early  churches  show  an  alter- 
nating arrangement  in  which 
piers  and  columns  both  ap- 
pear, another  obvious  tran- 
sition to  the  later  system 
(Fig.  81).  Many  early  Eo- 
manesque churches  contin- 
ued the  basilica  plan  without 
important  modifications  (Figs. 

81,  88).  This  was  especially 
the  case  in  Italy  and  for  two 
reasons.  The  basilica  tra- 
ditions were  stronger  there 
and  the  supply  of  columns  from  ancient  buildings. lasted 
longer. 

In  Lombardy  (Xorth  Italy)  the  northern  system  of 
vaultings  appears  at  an  early  date,  but  in  Tuscany 
(south  of  the  Appenines)  the  Italian  Eomanesqire,  in  the 


Fig.  91.— Limoges  Enamel. 
The  Virgin  Mary. 
Twelfth  Century. 


164 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


larger  number  of  cases,  exhibits  an  intermediate  stage 
of  development  as  compared  with  the  buildings  of  the 
north.  It  constantly  shows  Eomanesque  ornament  and 
details,  without  the  vaulting  and  without  the  pier. 
The  Pisa  Cathedral  is  the  finest  instance  of  this  inter- 
mediate system.  Only  the  side  aisles  of  this  cathedral 

are  vaulted.  Its  ex- 
terior ornament  is, 
however,  more  elab- 
orate and  more  care- 
fully planned  than  that 
of  any  northern  build- 
ing (Fig.  87). 

The  system  of  varie- 
gated masonry  in  hori- 
zontal stripes,  is  pecu- 
liar to  Italy  as  far  as 
the  Eomanesque  is 
concerned.  These 
stripes  are  found  in 
Oriental  Byzantine, 

fig.  92.-IVOKY  CARVED  BOOK  COVER,  ^ud  iu  Saraceuic  build- 
The  Deposition  AND  EifTOMBME>'T.  ido-c  ond  ot-a  ILadaa 
Thirteenth  Century.  Ravenna.  tUence 

derived.  The  Lucca 
Cathedral  and  many  other  churches  of  Tuscany  are  later 
variants  of  the  Pisa  Cathedral. 

The  ornamental  carvings  and  the  capitals  of  Eoman- 
esque art  are  develoiiments  from  the  Byzantine.  llTiere 
columns  were  employed  the  cube  capital  is  common 
tFig.  81).*  For  the  pier  capitals  new  forms  were 
invented  or  evolved.  The  introduction  of  grotesque 

♦ The  capitals  of  the  Pisa  Cathedral  are  antique.  The  columns  and 
capitals  were  brought  from  Sicily. 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE. 


155 


forms  of  animals  or  men  in  these  ornaments  is  peculiar 
to  this  period,  as  distinct  from  the  one  which  preceded. 
These  grotesques  represent  the  fantastic  and  original 
spirit  of  the  Germanic  North  as  contrasted  with  the 
more  sedate  Byzantine  dependence  on  earlier  classic 
designs. 

In  the  rare  examples  of  Eomanesque  wall  painting 
which  have  survived,  there  is  visible  a finished  and 
powerful  style  which  bespeaks  long  previous  practice 
and  an  interesting  survival  of  classic  art.  It  is  far 
otherwise  in  the  sculpture,  where  the  early  efforts  are 
clumsy  and  rude,  though  interesting  for  the  originality 
of  the  motives  and  the  earnest  effort  of  the  workman 
(Figs.  90,  92).  The  conclusion  is  obvious  that  the  ef- 
forts in  sculpture  were  less  assisted  by  tradition,  and  the 
dearth  of  Byzantine  art  in  this  line  has  been  explained. 

In  enamels  and  metal  work  there  are  many  survivals 
of  Byzantine  influences  (Fig.  91).  The  rudest  art  of  the 
period,  as  regards  sculpture  and  painting,  survived 
latest  in  Italy  where  we  find  incredibly  barbaric  design 
even  in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  style  represented 
by  Fig.  92  was  common  at  this  time  all  over  Italy  and 
was  not  improved  upon  until  the  advent  of  Mcolo  of 
Pisa. 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

THE  GOTHIC  PERIOD. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  a long-standing  contention 
between  the  popes  and  the  Germanic  emperors  ended 
in  the  complete  downfall  for  many  centuries  of  imperial 
territorial  power,  and  the  consequence  was  that  even 
as  German  kings  the  emperors  also  lost  their  power. 
The  contention  between  the  emperors  and  popes  was  one 
regarding  episcopal  appointments,  which  the  emperors 
wished  to  control  on  account  of  the  enormous  dimensions 
of  the  spiritual  territories  which  they  themselves  had 
created  in  order  indirectly  to  keep  the  territorial  power 
in  their  own  hands.  This  was  constantly  tending  to  slip 
from  their  grasp,  owing  to  the  hereditary  power  of  the 
feudal  sovereignties.*  The  popes  naturally  preferred  to 
have  the  appointment  of  bishops  made  for  ecclesiastical 
and  not  for  territorial  and  political  reasons,  and  to  re- 
tain the  privilege  of  confirming  or  rejecting  the  appoint- 
ment, which  practically  gave  them  a share  in  making  it. 

As  one  result  of  the  success  of  the  popes  in  this 
contest,  aside  from  the  great  increase  in  their  own 

* The  enlargement  of  the  bishoprics  was  part  of  their  effort  to  break 
down  the  opposition  to  the  monarchy  of  the  hereditary  feudal  sovereign- 
ties. The  right  of  Ailing  vacancies  in  spiritual  appointments  was  thus 
used  by  the  emperors  to  antagonize  the  feudal  system.  When  large 
territories  were  given  away  at  each  new  episcopal  appointment  something 
could  be  exacted  in  return  and  the  inAuence  remained  with  the  king. 
W^here  large  states  were  hereditary  this  inAuence  was  lost. 

156 


THE  GOTHIC  PERIOD. 


157 


political  significance,  we  may  mention  tlie  complete 
independence  of  the  Italian  civic  states'  from  the 
Germanic  emperor.  Another  result  was  the  reduction  of 
the  titular  king  of  Germany  and  titular  emperor  of 
Christendom  to  such  a condition  of  weakness  that  he  was 
frequently  worse  off  in  estates  and  influence  than  many 
of  his  own  supposed  vassals. 

On  the  other  hand,  France  now  became  what  Germany 
had  been — the  leading  state  of  Europe.  Her  kings 
began  to  consolidate  their  territories  and  to  master  them 
in  fact,  as  well  as  in  name.  In  this  rise  to  power 
they  were  assisted  by  an  alliance  with  the  Communes 
(that  is,  the  cities  of  France),  who  were  in  turn  protected 
and  assisted  by  the  kings  in  their  own  contentions 
with  the  feudal  nobles. 

The  crusades  had  been  especially  favored  and  sup- 
ported by  France,  and  their  reacting  influence  on 
European  history  was  also  most  apparent  in  this 
country.  This  influence  was  partly  to  further  com- 
merce, partly  to  increase  the  power  of  the  kings,  partly 
to  weaken  the  influence  of  the  feudal  nobles — all  results 
which  in  one  way  or  another  raised  the  importance  of 
the  cities. 

Now  the  first  Gothic  cathedrals  were  built  in  France 
and  within  the  individual  domain  of  their  kings.  Their 
architectural  style  was  a French  invention.  Its  spread 
throughout  Europe  signifies  French  ascendency  and  in- 
fluence in  the  later  Middle  Ages,  as  the  Eomanesque 
especially  signifies  Germanic  power  and  greatness  in  the 
earlier  Middle  Ages.  As  regards  England,  Germany, 
and  Spain,  the  Gothic  was  a borrowed  style.  As  far  as 
it  very  slightly  influenced  Italy  the  same  point  holds. 

In  Gothic  architecture  we  have  therefore  to  consider 


158 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIETAL  ART. 


two  distinct  movements.  One  was  the  evolution  as 
accomplished  in  one  spot.  The  other  was  the  gradual 
displacement  of  Romanesque  methods  in  countries  ex- 
terior to  France,  where  they  were  supplanted  by  a 
style  directly  introduced  and,  so  to  speak,  ready-made. 

As  the  rise  and  spread  of  Gothic  cathedral  architec- 
ture was  undoubtedly  the  most  important  feature  of 
art  history  between  the  thirteenth  and  the  sixteenth 
centuries  (1200-1500  A.  D.),  this  period  is  accord- 
ingly named ; but  most  interesting  developments  in 
the  art  of  design  were  made  in  Italy  during  these  cen- 
turies, which  were  quite  independent  of  it,  as  was  also 
mainly  the  Italian  architecture,  which  is  notwithstand- 
ing, for  the  given  dates,  known  as  the  “Italian  Gothic.” 

The  word  “Gothic”  itself  is  one  of  Italian  coinage 
and  was  used  by  the  Italians  of  the  later  Middle  Ages  to 
designate  all  buildings  of  Northern  Europe  without 
reference  to  any  of  our  own  distinctions  of  period  or 
style.  We  still  speak  of  the  “Goths  and  Vandals” 
when  we  wish  to  designate  barbarism,  and  the  word 
“Gothic”  simply  meant  to  Italian  comprehension 
“Germanic,”  in  the  large  sense,  or  as  we  shoiUd  say — 
“medieval.”  Both  the  Visigoths  and  Ostrogoths  had 
been  invaders  of  Italy  during  the  downfall  of  the  W est- 
ern  Roman  Empire.*  The  word  Goth  was  thus  a charac- 
teristic designation  for  the  Germans  at  large,  and 
although  France  in  the  later  Middle  Ages  had  lost  all 
vestige  of  her  Frankish  Germanic  origins,  the  Italians 
were  good  enough  historians,  or  bitter  enough  haters,  to 
remember  that  all  the  countries  of  the  western  empire 


* The  Goths  had  been  designated  as  V'est  Goths  and  East  Goths,  accord- 
ing to  their  location  north  of  the  lower  Danube ; hence  the  names  Visi- 
goth and  Ostrogoth. 


THE  GOTHIC  PEEIOD. 


159 


had  been  Germanized  and  that  Italy  had  suffered  most 
from  their  invasions  because  she  had  the  most  to  lose. 

This  historic  prejudice  of  the  Italian  against  Germanic 
and  Northern  Europe  explains  the  first  use  of  the 
word  ‘‘Gothic,”  which  was  subsequently  adopted  by 
Northern  Europe  with  the  style  and  taste  of  the  Ee- 
naissance  during  and  after  the  sixteenth  century.  It 
was  this  Eenaissance  style  (revival  of  the  Greco-Eoman 
classic  style)  which  finally  then  displaced  and  sup- 
planted the  Gothic.  This  was  abandoned  more  or  less 
rapidly  all  over  Europe  and  there  is,  broadly  siieak- 
ing,  a gap  of  three  hundred  years  between  the  modern 
copies  of  Gothic  buildings  and  the  old  originals,  which 
gap  is  filled  by  the  Italian  Eenaissance  style.* 

In  Northern  Eenaissance  Europe  the  word  “ Gothic  ” 
was  also  applied  indiscriminately  to  medieval  buildings 
of  all  dates  and  without  reference  to  the  peculiar  style 
which  we  distinguish  by  it.  The  word  was  also  used  in 
the  same  contemptuous  and  prejudicial  sense.  It  was 
not  till  the  nineteenth  century  that  a revived  interest  in 
the  Middle  Ages  at  large  led  to  a revived  interest  in  the 
latest,  largest,  and  most  numerous  cathedrals,  and  a 
distinctive  name  was  then  required  for  their  style. 
This  was  obtained  by  confining  the  word  already  in 
use  to  the  one  period  and  coining  new  ones  for  the 
earlier  styles. 

This  history  of  the  word  is  therefore  a history  of  the 
causes  which  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  style,  and 
also  of  the  causes  which  have  recently  led  to  its  revival 
and  to  the  modern  study  of  its  ancient  monuments. 

Although  the  earliest  Gothic  buildings  are  in  the 
French  territory  surrounding  the  city  of  Paris,  the  choir 


* Before  the  Greek  Revival  of  the  later  eighteenth  century. 


(W.  -(>)I,(](iNK  (’ATII  ^:lll^A  I,. 


THE  GOTHIC  PERIOD. 


161 


of  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Denis,  Cathedrals  of  Noyon,  Laon 
and  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris,  it  is  through  the  fully  de- 
veloped buildings  that  we  can  most  distinctly  explain 
Gothic  traits  and  we  shall  select  examples  for  illustration 
without  reference  to  early  date  accordingly.  * 

The  elementary  explanations  of  the  rise  of  the  Gothic 
style  are  all  connected  with  the  increasing  areas  and  size 
of  the  great  cathedrals  and  this  increase  of  dimensions 
as  found,  for  instance,  in  France,  is  related  to  the 
growth  of  the  French  cities  under  the  political  and 
historical  conditions  just  explained.  And  what  held 
especially  for  France  at  this  time  in  the  first  instance, 
held  also  for  Europe  in  general  in  its  Gothic  period. 
The  prosperity  of  England  was  never  so  great,  at  least 
since  the  days  of  the  Eoman  Empire,  as  it  was  from  the 
time  of  Edward  the  First  on  (thirteenth  century)  ; 
and  the  beginnings  of  the  English  Gothic  date  from 
the  times  of  John  and  the  Magna  Oharta  (early 
thirteenth  century). f The  prosperity  of  the  Nether- 
land  cities,  owing  especially  to  their  manufactures  of 
cloth,  was  something  phenomenal  in  the  later  Middle 
Ages.  Although  the  monarchy  had  been  depressed 
in  Germany  the  free  cities  had  risen  in  importance. 
Now  came  the  great  days  of  the  Hansa  trading  league 
and  of  the  commerce  of  the  Baltic.  There  have  never 
been  in  Europe  since  that  time  such  imposing  buildings, 
such  enormous  church  interiors.  St.  Peter’s  at  Eome 
and  St.  Paul’s  at  London  are  rare  exceptions  of  large  in- 
teriors for  modern  (Eenaissance)  times  as  compared  with 
the  general  rule  for  all  the  important  Gothic  cathedrals. 

*The  choir  of  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Denis  dates  from  1144. 

fThe  first  Gothic  portions  of  Canterbury  Cathedral  were  begun  in  1174  by 
a French  architect. 


162 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


In  laying  stress  on  this  point  of  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  the  cities  and  the  consequent  demand 
for  large  cathedrals,  we  must  of  course  also  take  account 
of  conditions  which  would  explain  why  commercial 
prosperity  in  later  times  has  not  had  an  equal  influ- 
ence in  the  same  direction. 

One  main  explanation  is  that  the  public  spirit  of  these 
cities  was  more  active  because  they  were  more  inde- 
pendent. They  were  practically  independent  civic 
states.  The  league  between  them  and  royalty  in  France 
was  much  more  one  of  joint  partnership  of  opposition  to 
the  power  of  the  nobles,  than  a condescending  protector- 
ate on  the  one  hand  or  a dependent  submission  on  the 
■other.  In  all  countries  of  the  late  Middle  Ages,  except- 
ing Italy,  where  there  was  no  monarchy,  the  general 
rule  holds  of  an  alliance  between  the  monarchy  and  the 
commercial  classes.  Contrary  to  possible  supposition, 
monarchy  and  aristocracy  are  by  no  means  synonymous 
terms  or  natural  allies.  In  original  development  they 
have  always  been  rivals  and  were  avowedly  so  in  Europe 
down  to  the  eighteenth  century.  The  kings  wanted 
money  and  it  was  only  the  cities  which  could  give  it. 
Standing  armies  and  artillery  to  crush  feudal  opposition 
to  the  monarchy  were  thus  obtained.  Backed  by  this 
alliance  the  public  spirit  of  the  cities  of  that  day  corre- 
sponded to  the  patriotism  of  a modern  nation,  but  was  a 
much  more  active  force  in  art  because  the  relation  be- 
tween art  and  the  people  was  more  direct  and  more 
obvious.  The  cathedral,  when  it  was  built,  was  seen 
and  used  by  all  the  citizens  who  had  helped  to  pay  for 
it.  They  all  took  a personal  pride  in  it  and  all  felt  a per- 
sonal rivalry  with  each  other  city  which  was  boasting  or 
preparing  to  boast  of  its  own  great  structure.  Human- 


THE  GOTHIC  PERIOD. 


163 


ity  only  reaches  great  results  when  combined  and  organ- 
ized in  masses ; but  these  masses  must  not  be  so  large 
that  the  individual  loses  his  sense  of  relation  to  the 
whole,  or  that  his  individual  interests  are  not  visibly  a 
part  of  the  whole.  In  the  modern  states  a national 
public  art  corresponding  to  that  of  the  Greeks  or  of  the 
Middle  Ages  has  been  so  far  impossible  because  public 
art,  to  be  good,  must  be  visible  to  all  the  people  who 
pay  for  it  and  must  represent  their  personal  interests  and 
show  forth  their  personal  ambition  and  personal  pride. 
The  modern  state  is  too  large  as  compared  with  the  free 
city  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  obtain  such  results  in  art  as 
were  then  obtained — as  far  as  society  has  been  organized 
since  that  time. 

All  explanations  or  comprehensions  of  a great  art 
must  start  from  the  conditions  which  produced  it. 
Therefore,  we  must  first  consider  the  Gothic  architecture 
from  this  point  of  view.  Its  masonry  is  vital  with  the 
life  of  an  epoch  and  this  we  must  first  try  to  seize.  One 
grand  point  is  that  modern  states  and  modern  nations 
did  not  exist  in  the  Middle  Ages.  There  were  corpora- 
tions, there  were  cities,  there  were  religious  orders, 
there  were  feudal  estates  with  their  owners  (chiefs  or 
“barons”),  and  warrior  supporters,  and  there  were  kings 
— but  there  were  no  countries  and  no  nations.  That  is 
to  say,  there  were  no  national  countries.  Each  language 
of  modern  Europe  is  the  development  of  a dialect.  In 
the  language  of  a given  nation  there  were  then  as  many 
dialects  as  there  are  now  languages  in  Europe,  and  these 
were  as  incomprehensible  to  the  other  districts  of  the 
country  as  a foreign  language  now  is  to  one  who  has  not 
learned  it.  This  was  one  great  cause  of  the  power  of  the 
clergy,  who  all  spoke  one  language,  viz.  : Latin.  How 


1G4 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


a nation  and  a country,  as  we  understand  the  word,  must 
have  a common  language.  This  is  the  first  necessary 
bond  between  men — to  be  understood.  In  the  absence  of 
a country  and  of  obvious  national  interests,  the  corpora- 
tions, cities,  religious  orders,  and  feudal  estates  were 
the  units  of  society.  National  states  were  being  organ- 
ized by  the  monarchies,  but  they  did  not  exist  in  a 
developed  form  until  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the 
Gothic  cathedral  style  was  abandoned. 

An  equally  important  consideration  concerns  the 
religious  faith  of  the  people  and  the  importance  of  this 
faith  in  their  daily  lives,  and  consequently  in  their 
art.  In  the  absence  of  the  scientific,  historical,  poetic, 
and  romantic  literature  of  modern  times,  the  literature 
of  the  Bible  had  an  absorbing  historical  and  poetic,  as 
well  as  purely  religious,  interest  for  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  lessons  and  the  stories  of  the  Bible  were  taught  and 
told  by  painting  and  sculpture  in  default  of  printed 
books.  In  paintings  and  sculptures  and  stained  glass, 
the  cathedral  was  a monument  of  literature  in  stone. 
The  interest  in  church  matters  is  shown  by  the  number 
of  minor  churches  which  were  built.  There  is  a beauti- 
ful church  in  Cologne  which  is  said  to  have  been  built  in 
the  leisure  hours  of  the  masons  of  the  cathedral,  and  the 
tradition  is  significant  without  any  relation  to  its  truth. 
That  smaller  churches  were  constantly  built  in  the  close 
neighborhood  of  the  cathedrals  in  times  when  there 
were  no  denominational  sects,  is  also  very  significant. 
This  brings  us  to  the  uses  and  public  significance  of 
a cathedral. 

For  the  Gothic  period  the  cathedrals  were  almost 
as  much  civic  buildings  as  they  were  churches,  and  in 
the  sense  that  they  embodied  the  pride,  the  ambition, 


Fig.  94.— Transept.  Cologne  Catliedral. 


166 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


and  the  rivalries  of  the  cities,  this  was  eminently  the 
case.  But  they  were  also  actually  used  for  towm 
meetings,  for  public  festivals,  and  for  theatrical  ex- 
hibitions— the  ‘‘Miracle  Plays”  and  “Passion  Plays,” 
which  have  survived  in  one  famous  modern  instance 
at  Ober-Ammergau.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  church  and 
the  cathedral  were  always  open,  like  the  Catholic 
churches  of  our  own  day.  Here  the  poor  man  was 
the  equal  of  the  rich.  The  beggar  and  his  lord  met 
on  terms  of  equality  in  the  liberty  of  using  the  build- 
ing and  in  the  theory  of  its  religious  teachings.  There 
were  no  pews  for  favored  owners.  The  cathedral  was 
the  palace  of  the  poor,  and  its  entire  space  outside 
the  sanctuary  was  open  to  their  daily  visits  and  so- 
journ at  will,  without  disturbance. 

The  cathedral  was  the  museum  of  art ; a museum 
made,  not  to  display  the  ostentation  of  the  rich  or 
the  luxury  of  his  life,  but  to  teach  by  pictures  and 
reliefs  the  history  of  the  world  as  then  known  and  com- 
prehended by  the  traditions  of  the  church,  and  the 
lessons  of  faith  and  of  sacrifice.  Here  were,  moreover, 
the  actual  memorials  and  relics  of  past  ages ; for  here 
was  the  treasury  not  only  of  the  art  of  the  present 
but  also  of  the  art  of  the  past.  Finally,  the  cathedral 
was  the  sanctuary  of  the  famous  and  illustrious  dead. 
Their  tombs  were  its  decoration  and  its  pride. 

This  popular  significance  and  these  popular  uses 
hold  for  the  cathedrals  of  all  periods,  consequently  for 
the  Byzantine  and  Eomanesque  as  well  as  the  Gothic. 
But  the  Byzantine  cathedrals  were  more  largely  the  erec- 
tions of  the  clergy,  the  Eomanesque  cathedrals  were 
largely  the  erections  of  the  Germanic  emperors  or  of  the 
great  religious  orders,  while  the  Gothic  cathedrals  were 


THE  GOTHIC  PEEIOD. 


167 


especially  the  buildings  of  the  municipalities.  The 
union  in  these  buildings  of  the  arts  of  stained  glass, 
of  fresco  ornament  and  sculptured  stone  decoration, 
of  panel  pictures,  of  metal  work  in  the  altars,  shrines, 
and  chandeliers,  and  of  wood  carving  in  the  seats  of  the 
clergy,  is  to  be  constantly  kept  in  mind.  The  pulpits 
were  also  objects  of  special  artistic  splendor. 

Thus  the  industrial  arts  of  the  Gothic  period  as  a 
whole  are  illustrated  through  these  buildings,  which 
are  moreover,  as  monuments  of  engineering  execution, 
worthy  of  all  admiration.  The  mathematical,  geometri- 
cal, and  statical  science  requisite  for  their  construction  is 
our  best  authority  for  the  high  civilization  of  their  time. 
Their  architects  were  moreover  not,  like  our  own, 
educated  apart  from  the  artisans  and  masons  and  sculp- 
tors who  were  their  servants. 

The  architect  of  the  cathedral  was  the  master-mason, 
a fact  of  supreme  importance  for  the  perfection  of  these 
buildings,  for  the  understanding  of  their  subtle  art,  and 
for  the  comprehension  of  the  changed  conditions  in 
our  own  time  which  make  it  impossible  for  us  to 
rival  them. 

It  was,  in  other  words,  the  actual  combination  of  theory 
and  practice  in  the  person  of  one  designer  which  made 
their  perfection.  Our  greatest  modern  architects  spend 
their  lives  in  an  office  where  they  employ  a number  of 
draughtsmen  to  prepare  their  plans.  The  modern  con- 
structor who  is  employed  by  the  architect  belongs  to  an- 
other profession,  also  living  in  an  office,  and,  again, 
distinct  from  a series  of  contractors  who  are  employed 
by  him.  These  again  employ  the  artisans  and  actual 
builders.  The  architect  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  a man 
of  the  people  and  a trained  mason  who  spent  his  life  on 


168 


EOMAJs’^  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


the  scaffolds  of  his  buildings  in  actual  superintendence 
of  the  work.  The  masons  and  carvers  themselves 
were  persons  of  experience  and  standing,  banded  to- 
gether in  guilds  or  societies  which  perpetuated  their 
traditions  of  method  and  technical  skill.  These  cor- 
porations never  died  and  their  art  was  immortal  while  it 
lasted.  The  “Masonic”  societies  of  our  own  time 
are  survivals  of  these  masonic  guilds. 

I should  be  far  from  underrating,  among  all  these  con- 
siderations, the  influence  of  the  church  itself  and  its 
clergy.  The  clergy  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  its  men  of 
science  and  of  learning,  its  teachers  and  masters  of 
foreign  languages,  its  literary  workers  and  students,  the 
guardians,  moreover,  of  the  literature  of  the  present  and 
the  past.  They  were  the  librarians,  the  diplomats, 
and  the  courtiers  of  the  age,  skilled  in  political  art 
and  the  knowledge  of  men ; even  warfare  was  not 
always  foreign  to  their  life.  Finally  and  above  all  they 
were  teachers  of  religion.  At  once  the  guardians  of  the 
literature  and  civilization  of  Eoman  antiquity,  in  the 
time  of  the  German  invasions  and  early  German  states, 
when  every  convent  was  a center  of  instruction  in 
the  industrial  arts  and  every  priest  a mediator  between 
the  barbarian  and  his  helpless  prey,  they  had  become 
the  revered  and  honored  masters  of  their  age.  The 
wealth  of  their  corporations  and  their  Orders  was  only 
equaled  by  their  charity  to  the  poor.  While  the  power 
of  the  king  and  the  baron  was  inherited  by  birth, 
the  highest  honors  of  the  church  were  open  to  the  son  of 
the  humblest  serf  Visible  and  material  signs  and 
results  of  this  power  of  the  church  the  cathedrals 
undoubtedly  were,  but  the  Gothic  cathedrals,  especially, 
were  undoubtedly  built,  in  the  main,  by  the  energy  and 


THE  GOTHIC  PERIOD. 


169 


offerings  of  the  people  at  large.  There  are  records 
of  the  donations  by  women  of  their  jewels,  and  by  poor 
people  of  various  modest  offerings  and  small  sums  of 
money,  which  prove  this  to  have  been  the  case. 

We  have  been  led  into  an  account  of  the  general 
causes  which  contributed  to  the  grandeur  of  the  Gothic 
cathedrals,  by  insisting  first  on  the  average  increase 
of  area  and  dimensions  in  important  churches,  as  due  to 
a particular  rise  in  power  of  the  cities  of  the  Middle 
Ages  in  which  France  led  the  way.  We  may  begin  our 
explanation  of  the  style  itself  in  structural  details  by 
showing  that  the  pointed  arch,  which  is  one  main 
feature  of  it,  was  adopted  on  account  of  this  increased 
dimension. 


CHAPTEE  X. 

GOTHIC  AECHITECTUEE. 

The  pointed  arcli  is  not  known  in  existing  remains 
of  architecture  (outside  of  Assyrian  vaulted  drains  and 
ruins  of  the  upper  Xile)  before  the  time  of  the  Arab 
buildings  (Figs.  73,  77).  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  was 
through  contact  with  these  that  its  form  became  familiar 
to  the  Crusaders  as  well  as  to  architects  of  Spain  and 
Southern  Italy.  The  pointed  arch  is  found  in  occasional 
use  in  the  later  Eomanesque,  and  we  find  here  another 
instance  of  the  transitions  by  which  the  new  style  was 
reached,  but  as  it  appears  in  these  cases  it  was  used 
without  any  distinct  system  of  Gothic  development.  In 
the  case  of  the  Gothic  style  it  is  clear  that  its  adoption 
was  not  due  to  imitation  of  Saracenic  art  or  to  any 
decorative  preference.  The  decorative  preference  might 
appear  to  be  indicated  by  its  constant  decorative  use, 
for  the  round  arch  is  not  found  in  the  Gothic  period, 
excepting  in  Italy,  but  the  original  explanation  is  to 
be  sought  in  the  weight  of  the  vaulted  ceilings.  The 
decorative  use  followed  the  construction. 

The  view  of  the  ruin  of  Melrose  Abbey  (Fig.  97)  is 
the  best  illustration  on  this  head,  because  its  peculiar 
and  unusual  exhibition  of  a section  of  the  actual  con- 
struction shows  the  weight  of  masonry  which  presses  on 
the  arch.  The  weight  is  greater  here  than  was  usually 

170 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTUEE. 


171 


the  case,  but  the  illustratiou  serves  its  purpose.  This 
will  consequently  lead  us  to  consider  the  difficulties  and 
problems  which  beset  the  constructors  of  the  round-arch 
Romanesque  vaultings.  We  have  already  insisted  on 
the  point  that  the  Gothic  can  only  be  comprehended 


Fig.  95.— Wells  Cathedral. 

through  a preliminary  study  of  the  system  of  vaulting 
employed  by  the  Romanesque  (p.  143). 

Mathematically  considered,  we  know  that  the  round 
arch  is  a perfectly  stable  form,  but  physically  con- 
sidered, the  resistance  on  the  sides  must  be  sufficient  to 
keep  its  blocks  in  position.  If  the  side  resistance  gives 
way  or  is  weakened,  the  blocks  of  the  arch  are  displaced 
and  the  entire  structure  is  ruined  by  its  fall.  That  this 
disaster  actually  befell  a certain  number  of  early  Gothic 


172 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


cathedrals  during  or  soon  after  construction  is  known, 
and  helps  us  to  understand  the  pains  taken  in  other 
cases  to  avoid  this  possibility.  For  instance,  in  the  case 
of  the  choir  of  Beauvais  where  unusually  lofty  di- 
mensions were  attempted,  the  ceiling  of  the  choir  fell  in, 
twelve  years  after  completion,  and  the  entire  building 
had  to  be  reconstructed  in  consequence. 

In  the  enormous  development  of  dimension  in  the 
buildings  which  began  to  be  used  in  the  Gothic  period, 
the  round-arch  vaultings  were  found  insecure  for  the  in- 
creased height,  width,  and  weight.  Some  instances  of 
the  dimensions  attained  will  explain  the  reasons.  The 

height  of  the  nave 
at  Amiens  is  132  ft., 
at  Beauvais  146  ft., 
at  Cologne  140  ft.,  at 
Burgos  140  ft.,  at  Mi- 
lan 157  ft.  Milan  Ca- 
thedral holds  40,000 
people.  The  spire  of 
Strassburg  is  452  ft. 
high.  The  church  of 
San  Petronio  at  Bo- 
logna was  planned  for 
a length  of  640  ft. 
The  exterior  length  of 
Cologne  Cathedral  is 
530  ft,  of  Lincoln 
Cathedral  524  ft,  of 
Salisbury  Cathedral 
430  ft.  The  area 
covered  by  York  Cathedral  exceeds  by  4,100  ft.  that  of 
St  Paul’s.  The  span  of  the  cathedral  nave  of  Palma 


Fig,  96.— Lincoln  Cathedral. 


GOTHIC^  ARCHITlECTURE.  173 

-'4^~ 

in  Spain  is  65  ft.,  at  Gerona  in  Spain  it  is  73  ft.  Wiien 
the  average  dimensions  of  the  great  cathedrals  are  con- 
sidered and  especially  the  great  heights  of  the  naves, 
the  reason  for  the  use  of  the  pointed  arch  will  easily 
appear.  In  prefer- 
ence to  adding  to  the 
weight  of  the  exterior 
walls,  which  would 
have  been  practically 
impossible,  resort  was 
had  to  the  pointed 
form  of  the  arch,  in 
which  the  lateral 
pressure  relieves  the 
keystone  from  a por- 
tion of  the  weight. 

From  the  way  in 
which  two  leaning 
objects  will  support 
one  another,  we  may 
understand  how  the 
two  sides  of  a pointed 
arch  lean  against  and 
tend  to  support  one  another.  The  employment  of  the 
pointed  arch  in  doors  and  windows  was  a convenience 
of  use  following  that  which  was  absolutely  necessary, 
and  its  application  to  decorative  details  was  a natural 
consequence. 

A consideration  favoring  the  use  of  the  pointed  arch 
was  its  adaptability  to  the  varying  widths  of  nave  and 
aisles  when  connected  with  one  given  pier.  In  the 
Romanesque  interiors  (Figs.  79,  80),  it  will  be  observed 
that  only  the  alternate  piers  have  pilasters,  which  are  con- 


174 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


nected  by  ribs  with  the  ceiling  of  the  nave.  The  given 
number  of  piers  represents  ribbed  supports  for  every  bay 
of  the  aisles  (compare  the  aisle  of  Peterborough,  Fig.  78) 
which  are  half  the  width  of  the  nave  ; but  because  the 
round  arches  are  concentric  they  must  span  a greater 
space  when  they  rise  to  a greater  height  (Figs.  79,  80). 
With  the  pointed  arch  every  pier  of  the  side  aisles  was 
also  available  as  a true  pier  for  the  nave  (Figs.  98,  99), 
because  arches  of  varying  height  could  be  carried  from 
the  same  pier.  The  gain  in  security  for  the  nave,  or 
what  comes  to  the  same  thing,  the  economy  of  material 
to  secure  a given  result,  is  obvious.  We  can  see  in 
Fig.  98  that  the  arches  inclosing  the  upper  windows  of 
the  bays  must  be  more  pointed  than  those  which  span 
the  nave,  and  in  Fig.  80,  for  the  Eomanesque,  we  can 
see  that  the  arches  which  span  the  nave  are  equal  in 
size  to  those  which  reach  from  the  same  piers  to  form 
the  upper  bays  of  the  nave.  The  intermediate  piers  are 
here  only  available  for  the  vaultings  of  the  aisles. 

I have  intentionally  massed  together  the  views  for  the 
interiors  of  the  Gothic  churches.  In  all  of  them  the 
solid  masonry  of  the  ceiling  must  be  especially  con- 
sidered. In  some  of  them  the  skeleton  framework  of 
the  ribbings,  which  are  the  main  lines  of  support  for  the 
ceiling,  is  especially  distinct  in  the  pictures  (Figs.  98, 
99).  A point  which  cannot  be  well  illustrated  in  photo- 
graphs, and  which  can  with  difficulty  be  observed  in  the 
buildings  when  the  ceiling  is  viewed  from  the  floor,  is 
the  manner  in  which  the  spaces  between  the  ribs  are 
slightly  arched  in  such  a way  as  to  make  the  ribs 
the  actual  supports  of  the  ceiling.  These  in  their  turn 
transmit  the  pressure  to  the  piers. 

The  piers  of  the  Gothic  have  a lighter  and  more 


Fig.  9S.— C.^thedeal  of  Bayomne. 


176 


EOMAN  AXD  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


slender  construction  than  those  of  the  Eomanesque. 
The  latter  were  sometimes  of  plain  square  section  (Figs. 
79,  81)  or  were  square  and  beveled  at  the  corners,  or 
were  sometimes  massive  and  clumsy  round  supports,  as  in 
Fig.  82  (the  latter  mainly  Norman).  With  other  Eoman- 
esque piers  are  found  small  pilasters  leading  up  to  the 
ribs  above  and  connected  with  them  (Figs.  78,  80).  In 
the  Cathedral  of  Mainz,  we  see  the  square  pier  alter- 
nating with  the  square  pier  and  pilaster  (Fig.  79). 

In  the  Gothic  the  piers  are  generally  treated  as  a 
cluster  of  slender  ribs,  each  rising  to  its  own  definite 
and  special  functions  (Figs.  98,  99,  100).  Effects  of  a 

massive  or  clumsy  ap- 
pearance are  avoided. 
A strictly  logical  and 
strictly  economical 
use  of  materials  and 
forces  is  apparent. 
Eound  piers  are  not 
unknown  to  the 
Gothic,  but  they  are 
not  generally  found 
in  highly  developed 
or  characteristic  ex- 
amples of  the  style. 

In  the  use  of  the 
pointed  arch  there  is 
the  appearance  of  an 
aspiring  tendency  and 
of  a sentiment  for 
altitude.  This  is  en- 
hanced by  the  treatment  of  the  pier,  which  multiplies, 
both  by  lights  and  by  shadows,  the  rising  lines  which 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


177 


tend  to  enhance  the  effect  of  height.  The  same  senti- 
ment is  visible  in  the  actually  enormous  altitudes  of 
the  cathedrals.  These  effects  of  altitude  are  also  ex- 
aggerated by  a relative  narrowness  of  nave  and  aisles 
(Figs.  99,  100).  The 
general  result  is  to 
dwarf  the  spectator 
and  his  immediate 
surroundings. 

It  was  not  only 
actual  dimension  but 
the  effect  of  dimension 
which  was  sought  for 
and  attained.  Dis- 
proportionately high 
apartments  and  those 
which  surprise  the 
eye  by  an  effect  of 
height  are  known  to 
have  this  effect  of 
dwarfing,  in  appear- 
ance, the  persons  in 

T .T  • - i Fig.  100.— Cathedral  OF  Nantes. 

them.  In  this  point 

of  the  effect  of  dimension  the  cathedrals  attain  greater 
results  than  the  Pyramids,  with  far  less  material  effort. 

For  the  matter  of  the  Gothic  windows  we  should  logic- 
ally be  speaking  of  the  interiors  for  whose  service  they 
are  made,  but  exterior  views  may  illustrate  them  more 
visibly  as  being  taken  from  the  sides  of  the  buildings 
rather  than  down  the  length  of  nave  or  aisles  (Figs.  93, 
101).  In  developed  examples  almost  the  whole  wall 
surface,  aside  from  the  facades,  is  given  up  to  the 
windows.  The  infinitely  varied  designs  of  their  delicate 


178 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


stone  ribbings  are  a beautiful  feature  of  the  Gothic. 
The  perpendicular  stone  bars  are  called  “mullions.” 

The  delight  in  the  color  effects  of  the  stained  glass 
window  pictures  is  undoubtedly  one  explanation  of  their 
dimensions  and  number,  but  it  should  be  added  that 
throughout  the  developed  and  later  Gothic,  there  is 
an  obvious  effort  to  dispense  as  far  as  possible  with 
blank  walls,  or  solid  masonry  surfaces.  It  is  on  this 
account  that  in  developed  and  later  Gothic,  as  far  as  the 
masonry  appears,  it  is  treated  in  filigree,  so  to  speak 
(Fig.  102) ; broken  up  as  regards  effect  of  bare  surface 
by  the  expansion  over  the  wall  surfaces  of  a tracery  sys- 
tem borrowed  originally  from  the  designs  of  the  win- 
dows (Figs.  91,  101). 

It  is  in  the  same  sense  and  to  the  same  purpose 
that  the  statuary  decoration  is  conceived  and  elaborated. 
We  must  remember,  however,  that  the  effort  to  illustrate 
the  lessons  and  teachings  of  religion  and  to  glorify  the 
saints  and  prophets  and  apostles  was  also  in  question 
here.  In  the  great  Gothic  portals  the  statues  may  be 
counted  by  fifties  and  by  hundreds,  and  they  are  fre- 
quently lavishly  distributed  over  other  portions  of  the 
building,  especially  on  the  facades.  There  are  two  thou- 
sand statues  on  the  exterior  of  Milan  Cathedral. 

So  far  we  have  considered  everything  but  the  one 
thing  of  importance  essential  to  all  the  rest,  namely,  the 
stability  of  the  building.  When  we  remember  that 
these  tremendous  vaultings  of  the  interior  have  been 
raised  high  in  air  over  walls  which  on  the  sides  of 
the  building  at  least  are  conspicuous  for  their  flimsy  ap- 
pearance and  large  window  openings,  it  is  evident 
that  the  buttress  architecture  of  the  exterior  was  a 
serious  and  necessary  feature — not  designed  for  orna- 


Fig.  101.— Choir.  Milan  Cathedral, 


180 


EOMAN  AXD  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


ment  or  to  please  the  eye,  but  the  absolute  and  sole 
condition  of  the  existence  of  the  building. 

It  is  here  that  our  own  modern  copies  of  the  Gothic 
buttresses  have  tended  to  obscure  their  original  use. 
The  vaultings  of  the  old  Gothic  cathedrals  have  been  so 
rarely  attempted  in  modern  times  that  the  instances 
are  not  worth  mention  as  a matter  of  argument.  Where 
vaultings  are  seen,  in  appearance  they  are  imitations 
in  cement  or  in  stuccoed  laths  and  plaster.  At  the  time 


Fig.  102.— St.  Maclou.  Rouen. 


when  copies  of  the  Gothic  became  fashionable  in  modern 
architecture,  little  attention  had  been  paid  to  the  con- 
structive conditions  of  the  old  buildings.  It  was  their 
appearance,  not  their  construction,  which  was  imitated. 
The  sentiment  which  called  for  these  imitations  was  a 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


181 


literary  historic  interest,  a literary  fashion,  not  a 
movement  inspired  by  the  necessities  or . habits  of 
modern  construction.  We  have  consequently  become  so 
familiarized  with  the  appearance  of  the  buttress  in  imi- 
tations of  the  Gothic,  that  it  is  difficult  to  realize  its 
constructive  necessity  in  the  ancient  cathedrals. 

It  is  undeniable  that  the  use  of  the  buttress  in  appro- 
priate and  modest  dimensions  was  transferred  to  village 
timber-roofed  churches — equally  undeniable  that  there 
is  not  one  great  Gothic  cathedral  of  the  continent  of 
Europe  which  is  not  vaulted  and  that  the  style  as  such  is 
a vaulting  style.  There  is  not  the  slightest  objection  to 
a wall  buttress,  wherever  and  whenever  it  is  needed, 
and  it  may  easily  be  made  a means  to  economy  of 
material  in  a timber-roofed  church,  but  its  imitation 
as  a matter  of  ‘‘style”  without  reference  to  use,  which 
has  been  a very  general  thing  in  the  modern  Gothic 
copies,  is  absurd — as  all  unthinking  imitations  must 
always  be.  It  is  this  frequent  lack  of  constructive 
necessity  in  the  modern  Gothic  buttress  which  has 
promoted  the  recent  movement  in  favor  of  the  modern 
“ Italian  Gothic  ” and  the  modern  “ Eomanesque.” 

In  the  old  cathedrals  the  “flying  buttress”  was  a 
necessary  consequence  of  the  higher  elevation  of  the 
nave  as  compared  with  the  lower  elevation  of  the  side 
aisles.  Its  practical  use  is  perhaps  best  illustrated  by 
the  view  of  Melrose  Abbey  (Fig.  97),  although  it  ap- 
pears here  in  a rudimentary  and  clumsy  form.  The 
buttress  was  frequently  surmounted  by  a pinnacle  ; al- 
ways, in  fact,  when  the  flying  buttress  was  used  ; or  by  a 
statue  surmounted  by  a canopy.  The  pinnacle  added 
an  additional  weight  to  the  resisting  power.  It  also 
emphasized  the  rising  lines  of  the  building  and  its 


Fig.  103. — Choir.  Cathedral  of  Quimper 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


18a 


effects  of  altitude.  It  was,  in  a word,  an  ornament  em- 
phasizing construction. 

It  will,  on  the  whole,  best  explain  the  uses  of  the 
buttress  to  consider  in  the  case  of  a given  building 
(Fig.  105),  what  the  alternative  would  be  if  the  given 
cathedral  were  Romanesque.  In  this  case  the  wall 
would  necessarily  be  as  thick  at  all  points  and  in 
solid  mass  as  it  now  is  where  the  buttresses  project. 
The  same  economy  of  material  and  effort  is  therefore 
visible  here  which  appears  otherwise  in  the  Gothic. 
The  resistance  of  the  buttress  is  always  exactly  opposed 
to  the  interior  pier.  We  have  seen  that  the  treatment 
of  the  ribbed  skeleton  of  the  vaulting  is  such  that  all 
the  weight  converges  on  the  pier.  It  is  exactly  at  the 
corresponding  exterior  point  that  the  buttress  is  placed. 
This  will  be  also  apparent  by  comparing  the  exterior  re- 
lation of  the  window  spacings  between  the  buttresses, 
to  their  interior  situation  between  the  piers. 

An  ornament  which  is  very  common  in  the  middle 
Gothic  and  later  Gothic  of  the  continent,  but  less 
common  in  England,  is  the  gable-shaped  skeleton  ma- 
sonry form  which  appears  over  portals  or  window  in 
Figs.  94,  102.  This  is  a reminiscence  of  the  upper 
construction  of  a cathedral  in  cross-section,  understand- 
ing the  gable  line  as  representing  the  exterior  roof 
and  the  pointed  arch-line  as  representing  the  interior 
vaulting.  It  must  be  observed  that  the  solid  stone 
covering  leading  to  the  line  of  the  roof,  as  it  appears 
in  Melrose  Abbey  (Fig.  97),  is  an  unusual  exaggeration 
of  the  usual  construction,  which  admitted  an  interior 
vacant  space  between  the  arched  vaulting  and  the 
beams  of  the  exterior  timber  roof  which  was  always,  of 
course,  tiled  or  slated  over.  This  point  regarding  the 


184 


EOMAX  AXD  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


distinction  between  the  exterior  protecting  roof  and  the 
interior  masonry  ceiling  is  an  important  one.  The  for- 
mer was  demanded  to  prevent  the  penetration  of  mois- 
ture into  the  joints  of  the  masonry  and  its  consequent 
disintegration  as  the  result  of  frost  or  otherwise. 

The  capitals  and  other  ornamental  details  of  the 
Gothic  show  at  first  dependence  on  the  later  Eoman- 
esque  and  gradually  develop  from  them,  but  the 
naturalism  which,  in  the  Eomanesque,  had  advanced 

to  grotesque  forms 
taken  from  the  animal 
world,  now  seized  on 
the  forms  of  vegetable 
life  and  applied  them 
in  beautiful  adap- 
tations to  architectural 
detail.  The  later 
Gothic  shows  a great 
deal  of  closely  real- 
istic ornament,  but 
with  the  necessary 
amount  of  conventional 
treatment  required  by 
the  solid  material. 

I have  so  far  avoided 
reference  to  matters  of 
local  interest  or  to  in- 
dividual  buildings, 
(The  Fly-  aside  from  their  use  to 


Fig.  104.— Tours  Cathedral. 

ing  Buttress.) 


ge  neral 


illustrate 

points,  and  in  the  choice  of  the  views  I have  been  con- 
trolled by  the  availability  of  the  photograph  for  a given 
purpose,  rather  than  by  the  reputation  or  other  impor- 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


185 


tance  of  the  building  j but  some  indications  on  the  head 
of  specially  famous  buildings  will  be  expected. 

According  to  explanations  given,  the  French  Gothic 
deserves  first  consideration  as  a matter  of  logic,  and 
because  the  deviations  from  French  standards  in  other 
countries  are  to  be  explained  where  they  occur,  by  local 
causes  or  national 
predispositions.  The 
picturesque  beauty 
and  the  grand  effects 
of  the  Gothic  are 
found  in  all  European 
countries,  but  since 
they  are  due  to  France 
in  the  first  instance, 
this  country  should 
stand  first  in  mention. 

Among  the  earliest 
fully  completed 
Gothic  cathedrals  of 
France  may  be  men- 
tioned those  of  l^oyon, 

Laon,  and  Ifotre 
Dame  at  Paris.  In 
order  of  time  the  Cathedral  of  Amiens  is  the  first 
example  of  developed  Gothic.  Eheims,  Chartres, 
Eouen,  and  St.  Denis  near  Paris,  cannot  be  omitted 
from  any  mention.  The  Church  of  St.  Ouen  at  Eouen 
(distinct  from  the  cathedral  there)  deserves  and  has 
an  equal  reputation.  Not  to  mention  many  others  will 
seem  unjust  to  those  who  know  them  by  name  or  by 
fame. 

In  Germany  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne  stands  first. 


Fig.  105. — Choik.  Cathedral  of  Amiens. 


186 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


Strassburg  and  St.  Stephen’s  at  Vienna  probably  deserve 
the  next  mention. 

In  Italy,  Milan — and  in  Spain,  Burgos,  claim  the  first 
mention. 

In  England,  Westminster  Abbey  or  Canterbury  would 
naturally  take  first  place.  After  these  are  named  dis- 
crimination becomes  difficult. 

In  Belgium  the  Church  of  St.  Gudule,  at  Brussels,  and 
the  Cathedral  of  Antwerp  are  rivals  of  the  first  rank. 

It  is  difficult  to  dwell  on  the  number  or  the  magnifi- 
cence of  hundreds  of  other  churches  of  this  period, 
without  apparent  exaggeration  of  language  or  descrip- 
tions which  have  not  much  value  apart  from  illustra- 
tions. It  is  to  be  remembered,  however,  that,  although 

the  Romanesque  is 
somewhat  at  a disad- 
vantage in  the  matter 
of  modern  survivals 
and  also  of  popular 
reputation,  it  has  its 
own  distinct  and 
noble  worth.  In  the 
matter  of  picturesque 
exteriors,  at  least,  it 
has  no  cause  to  shun 
comparison  with  the 
succeeding  style. 

Both  in  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  there  is  a regular 
transition,  depending  on  sequence  of  time  and  regular 
historic  development,  from  the  simple  and  severe  to 
the  elaborate  and  ornate.  The  early  Gothic  is  quite 
simple  and  relatively  massive,  the  windows  are  smaller, 
and  tracery  less  developed,  the  towers  heavier,  the 


GOTHIC  AECHITECTUHE. 


187 


fagades  plainer,  tLe  proportions  less  exaggerated  in  ele- 
vation, and  the  piers  plainer  in  treatment' than  in  the 
developed  Gothic.  The  ornament  is  restricted,  and 
there  is  little  that  is  realistic.  It  "was  only  hy  degrees 

that  the  pure  Gothic 
character  was  reached 
and  this  again  at  a 
later  date  became 
florid,  overladen,  pe- 
dantic, capricious, 
and  illogical,  always 
also  by  degrees,  but 
with  increasing  rapid- 
ity as  the  sixteenth 
century  was  neared. 
The  corruption  and 
decadence  of  the  style 
were  very  apparent  before  the  Eenaissance  style  ap- 
peared in  Northern  Europe,  and  in  some  senses  the 
Gothic  died  a natural  death. 

These  distinctions  of  development  within  the  Gothic 
have  been  designated  in  English  terminology  for  Eng- 
lish buildings,  as  the  three  periods  of  the  “Early 
English,”  the  “Decorative,”  and  the  “Perpendicular” 
styles.  The  word  “perpendicular”  relates  to  only  one 
phase  of  the  Gothic  decadence,  and  is  illustrated  by  the 
cloister  of  Winchester  (Fig.  106),  where  the  upright 
lines  of  the  window  tracery  are  seen  to  enter  the  ex- 
terior lines  of  the  arch  abruptly.  Compare  the  window 
tracery  of  Figs.  94,  101,  for  other  methods  of  treatment. 
This  was  only  one  trait  of  the  decay  of  taste  out  of 
many  which  are  seen  in  the  decadence,  but  it  is  by  this 
trait  that  the  English  Gothic  decadence  has  been  speci- 


188 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


fied  in  general.  A very  depressed  arch  was  used  in 
England  in  the  late  Gothic,  which  is  known  as  the 
‘‘Tudor  arch,”  The  period  in  which  this  use  is  found 
is  the  most  inferior  of  all.  The  late  Gothic  is  known  in 
France  as  the  flamboyant,^ ^ i.  e.,  the  florid  (or  flaming) 
(Fig.  102).  Otherwise  the  designations  of  “early,” 
“middle,”  and  “late”  Gothic  are  accepted.  It  must 
be  understood  that  there  are  no  deflnite  limits  between 
these  periods.  Speaking  generally,  the  late  twelfth 
century  was  the  time  of  Gothic  beginnings  in  France, 
and  it  is  rarely  found  in  other  countries  before  the 
thirteenth  century ; the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies are  both  periods  of  great  perfection,  and  the 
flfteenth  century  is  the  time  of  relative  decadence. 
Both  in  Germany  and  England  the  thirteenth  century 
was  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  the  Gothic.  In 
Italy  it  was  never  fully  or  generally  accepted.  Within 
the  fleld  of  the  Gothic  proper  (i.  e.,  excluding  Italy) 
England  is  the  country  where  local  and  national  modifl- 
cations  are  most  obvious,  many  showing  that  the  style 
was  practiced  more  or  less  at  second  hand.  In  pictur- 
esque beauty  and  general  attractiveness  the  English 
cathedrals  may  be  compared  with  any,  but  preference 
must  be  given  to  the  French  in  the  study  of  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  style. 

As  regards  the  changes  of  Gothic  style  dependent  on 
its  general  evolution  and  decline,  it  must  be  observed 
also  that  these  are  constantly  apparent  in  the  various 
parts  of  one  given  building,  which  may  often  also 
include  portions  dating  from  the  Eomanesque,  and 
occasionally  from  early  Christian  time.  The  conse- 
quent varieties  of  treatment  in  difiereut  parts  of  one 
building  have  much  to  do  with  the  picturesque  qualities 


GOTHIC  AECHITECTUEE. 


189 


of  medieval  structures.  Canterbury  Cathedral  is  a 
fine  instance.  The  amount  of  such  variations  depends 
on  the  length  of  time  during  which  the  given  building 
was  undergoing  construction.  Fifty  or  one  hundred 
years  was  no  unusual  time,  and  many  exhibit  the  work 
of  four  or  five  different  centuries  at  least. 

In  the  Gothic  cathedral  we  still  find  the  plan  and 
essential  arrange- 
ments of  the  basilica. 

The  choir,  which  fre- 
quently occupies 
more  than  a third  of 
the  church  area,  is 
the  development  of 
the  apse.*  The  ar- 
rangement of  the  nave 
and  aisles  was  also 
derived  from  the 
basilica.  Although 
there  are  local  in- 
stances in  which  the 
aisles  rise  to  the 
height  of  the  nave, 
all  the  great  cathe- 
drals inherited  the 
higher  nave  elevation. 

The  effects  of  the  upper  light  thus  obtained  have  much 
to  do  with  the  mystery  and  power  of  these  buildings. 
The  upper  portion  of  the  nave  rising  above  the  aisles  is 
called  the  clerestory.  In  some  of  the  Eomanesque 
churches,  there  are  galleries  over  the  aisles  opening  on 
the  nave,  for  instance,  in  the  Pisa  Cathedral  (Fig.  88). 

* Compare  Figs.  9.3, 103, 105  with  Fig.  69  and  p.  118. 


190 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


This  arrangement  is  found  also  in  many  Gothic  cathe- 
drals and  is  known  as  the  “triforium”  (Fig.  100).  In 
other  cases  the  wall  surface  above  the  arches  and  below 
the  clerestory  is  relieved  by  an  imitative  gallery  of 
arches  and  pilasters  (Fig.  98).  The  number  of  aisles 
frequently  rises  to  four  in  the  great  cathedrals  and  this 
number  is  already  found  in  some  basilicas.  The  tran- 
septs are  developed  very  considerably  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  Eomanesque. 

The  spires  of  the  Gothic  are  an  evolution  from  the 
Romanesque  towers  (Figs.  83,  84,  85),  but  are  never 
found  in  the  four-fold  flanking  fashion  which  is  seen,  for 
instance,  in  the  Rhine  cathedrals.  The  disposition  of 
the  spires  is  generally,  in  important  churches,  two 
flanking  the  fagade  and  one  rising  above  the  junction  of 
the  nave  and  transept.  The  original  of  this  last  ar- 
rangement is  also  seen  above  the  Romanesque  transepts. 
Many  cathedrals  were  unflnished  at  the  opening  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  when  the  style  was  generally  aban- 
doned, and  the  completion  of  the  spires  was  always 
left  to  the  last.  It  was  not  till  after  1871  that  the 
completion  of  the  Cologne  Cathedral  spires  was  under- 
taken. The  famous  spire  of  Strassburg  is  only  one  of 
an  intended  pair  and  there  are  many  similar  cases. 

A dissimilarity  in  the  two  flanking  spires  is  frequently 
found,  resulting  from  erection  at  different  dates  (Fig. 
109).  Such  an  explanation  at  least,  is  constantly  offered, 
but  it  is  apparent  that  had  the  wish  for  exact  symmetry 
existed,  the  different  dates  of  erection  need  not  have  in- 
terfered with  it.  The  fact  really  is  that  mathematical 
symmetry  of  details  in  corresponding  parts  of  a build- 
ing was  not  only  indifferent  to  the  Middle  Ages  but  that 
it  was  actually  repugnant  to  its  taste.  Moreover,  it 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


191 


is  in  such  variations  that  the  picturesque  quality  of  the 
buildings  lies.  It  is  generally  admitted  that-  the  ancient 
Gothic  buildings  are  superior  to  the  modern  imitations 
even  when  the  modern  dimensions  approach  the  old,  but 
the  exact  causes  and 
conditions  of  this 
superiority  which  is 
so  easily  admitted  are 
by  no  means  clear  to 
the  pnblic  conscience ; 
and  for  the  improve- 
ment of  our  own 
architecture  it  is  very 
desirable  that  these 
should  be  understood. 

The  presumption  gen- 
erally is  that  the 
charm  of  antiquity, 
the  associations  of  the 
past,  and  historic  in- 
terest are  mainly 
responsible  for  our 
superior  interest  in 
old  Gothic  buildings  as  compared  with  new.  In  other 
words,  our  own  modern  Gothic  might  in  the  future,  to 
some  modest  extent,  vie  with  that  of  the  past.  This  is 
by  no  means  the  case. 

We  may  begin  our  explanation  by  noting  the  astonish- 
ing varieties  of  appearance  presented  by  the  medieval 
cathedrals  (of  any  epoch)  when  one  is  compared  with 
another.  Constant  surprises  in  contrast  of  individual 
appearance  will  meet  the  student  at  every  turn.  The 
individuality  in  single  examples  of  a given  style  is 


Fig.  109.— Cathedral,  of  Poitiers. 


192 


EOMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


undoubtedly  much  more  marked  than  is  the  case  in 
our  modern  copies.  Now  the  same  variety  which  ap- 
pears in  different  buildings,  when  one  is  contrasted 
with  another,  is  apparent  in  corresponding  parts  within 
the  limits  of  a given  building.  In  the  complicated  win- 
dow traceries  of  the  developed  Gothic  it  is  rarely  the 
case  that  two  adjacent  windows  or  any  two  windows 
of  the  one  building  are  exactly  alike.  In  the  sculptured 
decoration  of  the  capitals  of  the  columns  the  same 
variety  appears.  In  the  sculptured  “gargoyles,”  or 
waterspouts  for  carrying  off  the  rain  from  the  roof, 
we  shall  find  generally  a new  design  for  each  separate 
piece  (Fig.  110).  The  surface  traceries  and  the  details 
of  masonry  cutting  all  exhibit  this  spontaneous  vital- 
ity in  individual  execution. 

It  is  in  this  variety  of  the  details  that  the  charm 
of  the  building  consists.  The  eye  is  mystified,  kept 
busy,  and  kept  interested.  Every  change  of  view  is 
a change  of  effect.  The  medieval  cathedral  has  the 
same  qualities  of  perpetual  variety  which  interest  us 
in  landscape  scenery  or  in  the  forest  vista.  TThen 
we  ask  the  cause  of  this  quality,  we  shall  find  it  to 
lie  in  the  individual  creative  talent  and  artistic 
genius  of  the  masons,  stonecarvers,  and  artisans.  The 
details  of  the  buildings  were  executed  by  their  own 
spontaneous  efforts,  without  set  patterns  or  preconceived 
formulas.  They  built,  carved,  and  designed,  as  they 
went  along.  The  same  genius  and  inventive  talent 
which  is  found  in  the  handiwork  of  antique  domestic 
art  (p  65)  is  equally  common  to  the  Middle  Ages. 

Once  more  the  explanation  must  be  that  in  modern 
times  division  of  labor  and  the  use  of  machinery 
have  destroyed  in  the  working  and  artisan  classes 


GOTHIC  AECHITECTURE. 


193 


this  inventive  and  executive  capacity.  The  stonecutter 
,of  to-day  gets  his  pattern  from  a contractor,  who  gets 
it  from  a builder,  who  gets  it  from  an  architect,  who  gets 
it  from  a clerk  in  his  ofhce.  The  stonecutter  of  the 
Middle  Ages  was  given  a capital  to  decorate  and  was 
himself  the  artist  who  conceived  and  did  the  whole 
thing.  This  means  that  the  execution  was  vital  and 
vigorous,  that  the  pattern  itself  was  an  inventive  and 


Fig.  110.— Gakgoylb  and  gothic  Details.  Notre  Dame,  Paris. 

creative  effort,  not  a mechanical  copy,  and  that  the 
details  of  the  buildings  had  the  resulting  variety. 

Finally,  when  we  come  back  to  the  point  that  the 
architect  of  the  entire  structure  was  its  master-mason, 
we  understand  how  such  an  architect  could  modify  and 
change  his  plan  and  in  many  senses  build  his  design 
as  he  went  along,  and  how  it  is  that  the  point  of  variety 


194 


BOMAX  AXD  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


holds  for  different  buildings  as  the  necessary  result  of 
the  variety  in  the  parts  of  one. 

We  are  able  to  return  now  to  our  remarks  about 
the  changes  of  style  as  found  in  the  construction  of 
one  building.  What  appear  to  us  varieties  of  style 
were  to  the  eye  of  the  Middle  Ages  natural  varieties  of 
detail.  Some  details  changed  in  each  new  bit  of  work 
of  a given  carver  or  mason ; some  changed  because 
they  were  done  by  different  workmen  of  one  time,  and 
some  changed  because  they  were  done  by  different  work- 
men of  different  times.  We  cannot  too  much  insist 
on  the  fact  that  the  thought  of  “style”  as  such,  was 
foreign  to  the  Middle  Ages.  The  history  of  the  cathe- 
dral falls  into  the  three  grand  divisions  of  the  timber- 
roofed  basilica,  the  round- arch  vaulted  building,  and  the 
pointed-arch  vaulted  and  buttressed  building,  but  these 
were  different  modes  of  practical  construction  succes- 
sively called  into  use  by  matter-of-fact  causes,  and  sus- 
ceptible of  endless  variations  of  treatment,  in  which  the 
really  interesting  thing  is  the  independence  of  the  indi- 
vidual example,  not  the  resemblances  of  the  general  type. 

In  the  matter  of  combined  styles  we  have  two  es- 
pecially interesting  cases  in  the  Pisa  Baptistery  (Fig. 
87)  and  the  fagade  of  St.  Mark’s  at  Venice.  Both 
these  buildings  date  before  the  Gothic  period  in 
construction ; both  have  exterior  ornament  in  the  style 
of  the  “Italian  Gothic,”  and  yet  no  one  would  imagine 
from  their  appearance  that  they  were  not  homogene- 
ous, artistic  creations.  In  the  matter  of  medieval  re- 
pugnance to  exact  symmetry,  we  probably  have  a very 
remarkable  instance  in  the  famous  Leaning  Tower  of 
Pisa,  which  appears  to  have  been  an  intentional  con- 
struction, in  spite  of  some  opinions  to  the  contrary. 


Gothic  Poktal  Sculpture  at  Loxgpoxt  (Seixe  et 
France. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


NORTHERN  GOTHIC  SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING. 

It  is  from  an  architectural  standpoint  or  through 
architectural  associations  that  the  northern  Gothic 
sculpture  and  painting  are  best  approached.  The 
Gothic  pictures  (mainly  known  to  us  through  work  of 
the  Flemings  and  Germans)  have  a crude  and  awkward 
appearance  when  transferred  to  a modern  picture  gal- 
lery and  divorced  from  the  altars  and  shrines  of  the 
cathedrals  which  they  once  decorated.  It  is  in  the 
few  cases  where  the  old  association  has  been  preserved 
that  we  can  best  value  their  purpose  and  consequently 
their  art.  As  for  the  Gothic  sculpture  of  the  north,  it 
was  so  wholly  architectural  in  association  that  it  is 
impossible  even  to  mention  it  apart  from  the  buildings 
it  decorated. 

We  have  seen  under  what  peculiar  limitations  the 
early  Christian  art  began  its  history — ^limitations  of 
prejudice  against  that  study  of  the  nude  form  and  of 
anatomy,  which  is  indispensable  to  the  science  of  the 
artist ; limitations  of  indifference  to  physical  beauty  or 
appearances  of  natural  illusion ; limitations  of  the 
antique  art  decadence;  limitations  of  barbarism;  and 
limitations  of  Byzantine  tradition.*  The  first  dawning 
efforts  of  independence  are  dated  from  the  eleventh  and 


Figs.  60,  61,  62,  63,  64. 


195 


196 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


twelfth  centuries  * but  had  not  gone  far  when  the  Gothic 
period  opened.  We  have  seen  that  barbarism  of  sculp- 
tured design  was  still  general  throughout  Italy  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  f the  illustration  referred  to  being 
quite  a fair  type  of  the  best  average  work.  It  should 

be  added,  moreover, 
that  the  weakness  of 
the  sculptor’ s art 
during  the  Eoman- 
esque  centuries  lay 
especially  in  the  lack 
of  practice — its  sur- 
viving monuments 
(aside  from  ivory 
carvings)  being  con- 
fined to  a few  church 
bronze  doors  in  Ger- 
many and  Italy  and 
occasional  sculptures 
of  church  portals, 
mainly  of  the  later 
twelfth  century.  The 
phenomenal  excel- 
lence  of  those  at  Frei- 
berg (Saxony)  and  Wechselburg  in  Germany,  must 
have  some  local  explanation  related  to  the  occasional 
survival  of  classic  influences  and  style  during  the 
Middle  Ages.t  The  greatest  success  of  Eomanesque 


• Figs.  90,  91,  92. 
t Fig.  92. 

1 There  has  become  known  to  specialists,  in  very  recent  years,  the  exist- 
ence of  such  a classic  revival  in  the  very  center  of  the  Byzantine  period. 
See  B.-t YET— Z’Art  Byzantin  in  the  Bibliotheque  de  I’Enseignement  des 
Beaux  Arts. 


NOETHEEN  GOTHIC  SCULPTUEE  AND  PAINTING.  197 

carving  was  in  its  grotesque  and  scroll  ornaments  for 
capitals,  etc.,  in  which  it  was  thoroughly  successful. 

The  original  deficiencies  of  Christian  plastic  art  in  the 
Middle  Ages  were  never  entirely  overcome  throughout 
its  whole  history,  and  the  comparative  inferiority  of 
Gothic  sculpture  must  therefore  receive  a threefold  ex- 
planation : first,  the  lack  of  a scientific  study  of 
design  in  preceding  periods,  the  influence,  that  is  to  say, 
of  historic  continuity ; second,  its  purely  decorative 
purpose,  in  the  sense  that  its  works  were  all  connected 
with  architecture ; third,  the  enormous  amount  of  pro- 
duction hy  stonecut- 
ters (as  distinct  from 
professional  artists) 
due  to  the  architec- 
tural destination. 

It  was  the  fate  of 
Gothic  sculpture  in 
general  to  suffer  from 
a difficulty  of  exactly 
contrary  nature  to 
that  which  had  crip- 
pled art  in  earlier 
medieval  centuries. 

Want  of  practice  was 
one  earlier  cause  of 
medieval  deficiencies, 
over-production  was 
another  and  later 
cause.  The  enormous  quantity  of  statues  and  relief 
sculpture  lavished  on  single  buildings  is  apparent  from 
the  illustrations.*  The  case  of  Milan  Cathedral  on  which 


Fig.  112.— West  Dock.  Lichfleld. 


Figs.  95,  101,  102,  111,  112. 


198  ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 

there  are  two  thousand  statues  has  been  mentioned. 

Under  these  circumstances  rapid  stone-mason  and 
artisan  work  is  all  that  could  be  asked,  and  we  should 
rather  admire  the  decorative  success  of  the  average 
workman  than  criticise  his  art  for  not  doing  the  impossi- 
ble. Not  even  the  talent  and  dexterity  of  antiqnity 
could  have  held  the  average  of  work  up  to  the  level  of 
standard  professional  sculpture,  under  similar  con- 
ditions. In  grasping  the  religious  sense  and  pith  of  the 
story  to  be  told  by  a relief,  in  simjile  dignity  and  pure 
feeling,  in  innocence  of  expression,  the  Gothic  scuplture 
has  no  superior.  Its  subordination  and  relation  to  a 
general  architectural  effect  must  be  constantly  con- 
sidered in  making  proper  concessions  for  the  character 
of  execution.  We  see  in  one  of  the  portals  of  Chartres, 
for  instance,  that  the  unnatural  elongation  of  the  figures 
is  a decorative  accommodation  to  the  slenderness  of  the 
columns  against  which  they  stand  (Fig.  111).  The 
spectacle  of  an  entire  craft  of  stonecutters  rising  to  a 
high  degree  of  artisan  excellence  in  sculpture  is  the 
interesting  point  in  Gothic  plastic  art. 

As  the  small  fignres  of  ivory  carving  admit  of  larger 
reproduction,  the  picture  of  the  English  ivory  carving 
(Fig.  113)  will  give  a fair  idea  of  the  average  Gothic 
sculpture  in  larger  dimensions.  It  is  a triptych,  made 
for  a bishop  of  Exeter  in  the  fourteenth  century.*  The 
ivory  carvings  of  the  Gothic  in  general  are  also  indi- 
cated by  this  view. 

The  sculptures  of  Chartres,  of  Eheims,  of  Wells,  Lin- 
coln, and  Strassburg  are,  taken  collectively,  among  the 
finest  of  the  whole  Gothic  time.  For  the  wood  carvings 


* The  triptj'chs  are  small  shrines  for  private  devotion  with  a central 
panel  and  exterior  wings  hinged  so  as  to  close  over  it  like  doors. 


NOUTHEKX  GOTHIC  SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING.  199 

of  the  pulpits,  cathedral  choir  stalls  (seats  for  the  clergy) 
etc.,  the  late  Flemish  Gothic  has  many  fine  examples. 
Outside  of  Flemish  and  German  art,  survivals  of 


Fig,  113.— English  Ivory  Triptych.  Fourteenth  Century. 

Gothic  painting  in  the  north  are  almost  unknown.  The 
great  promise  held  out  hy  the  grand  and  simple  frescoes 
of  the  Eomanesque  cathedrals  was  not  fulfilled,  unless 
the  splendid  stained  glass  pictures  of  the  Gothic  windows 


200 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


are  included  in  our 
view.*  In  actual  fact, 
and  because  they  took 
up  almost  the  entire 
wall  surface,  these  did 
take  the  place  of  the 
earlier  paintings  of 
the  north. 

The  art  of  stained 
glass  reached  a per- 
fection at  this  time, 
which  has  never  since 
been  rivaled  for  bril- 
liancy and  harmony 
of  color  and  for  tech- 
nical merit.  The 
fine  revivals  which 
recent  nineteenth  cen- 
tury art  has  witnessed 
in  stained  glass  are 
distinctly  due  to  the 
study  of  the  old  Gothic 
windows ; for  during 
the  Eenaissance 
period  the  art  was 
mainly  abandoned. 
In  spite  of  the  beauty 
of  many  recent  ex- 
amples, it  cannot  be 
said  that  we  have  yet 
reached  the  excellence  of  the  ancient  art.  Theory  and 


Fig.  114.— Virgin  Mary  from  the  Van 
Eycks’  Altarpiece  in  Ghent. 


* It  has  been  mentioned  that  remains  of  these  Romanesque  frescoes  are 
rare  (p.  142)  but  their  ancient  wide  use  is  to  be  taken  for  granted. 


NORTHERN  GOTHIC  SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING.  201 


archieology  combined  cannot  fill  the  place  of  the  long 
practice  and  inherited  technical  traditions,-  which  were 
the  stock  in  trade  of  the  Gothic.  The  fine  color  sense 
of  individual  experts  may  go  far  in  individual  cases, 
but  it  cannot  cope  as  yet  in  its  average  results  with  the 
art  of  an  entire  craft  working  all  over  Europe,  such 
as  made  the  ancient  Gothic  windows. 

The  survivals  of  these  works  are  more  fragmentary 
than  might  be  supposed.  Few  cathedrals  of  France, 
Germany,  or  England  escaped  the  assaults  of  mobs 
during  the  time  of  the  Eeformation,  when  Catholic 
ecclesiastical  art  appeared  to  many  to  be  formal  idol- 
atry. The  windows  were  the  first  objects  of  attack  and 
were  the  most  easily  destroyed  of  all  Catholic  monu- 
ments. Scattered  survivals  here  and  there,  are  suffi- 
cient to  attest  their  universal  beauty. 

Figure  painting  did  not  flourish  widely  in  the  Gothic 
time.  The  natural  style  of  design  of  the  stained  glass 
window  was  somewhat  like  that  of  the  Byzantine 
mosaics  as  regards  its  methods  and  results  for  other 
art.  No  effort  was  made  to  avoid  the  breaks  in  the 
figures  made  by  the  leaden  framework  which  held  the 
segments  of  the  glass  together.  These  segments  were 
treated,  but  in  larger  dimensions,  in  the  style  of  mosaic. 
There  is  consequently  a stiffness  and  formalism  of  out- 
lines which  tended  to  react  upon  and  cripple  other  sur- 
face design,  in  much  the  same  way  that  the  mosaics 
tended  to  formalize  other  Byzantine  art  (pp.  109,  110). 

Of  all  arts,  figure  painting  is  consequently  that  which 
made  least  progress  in  this  time.  It  was  overshadowed 
by  its  sister  decorative  art,  that  of  the  stained  glass 
windows.  It  had  to  contend  with  limited  patronage  and 
was  left  in  England,  France,  and  Spain,  at  least,  to 


202 


EOMAX  AXD  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


inferior  artists.  The  art  was  confined  to  altar  and  panel 
pictures,  in  general  default  of  wall  surfaces.'^  Undoubt- 
edly much  was  done  that  has  perished,  but  for  modern 
survivals  we  are  almost  absolutely  confined  to  Flanders 

and  to  G e r m a n 3* , 
where  the  School  of 
Cologne  bordering  on 
the  Xetherlands  was 
the  most  important. 

It  was  not  till  the 
close  of  the  fourteenth 
centurj*  that  the  art 
of  painting  reached 
even  relative  success, 
but  in  the  hands  of 
the  Van  Ej’cks  of 
Bruges  (two  brothers, 
Hubert  and  Jan),  it 
blossomed  in  the  late 
fourteenth  and  early 
fifteenth  centuries 

Fig.  115.— Reliquary  of  St.  Ursula  in  marvelous  per- 

ghent.  Hans  Memling.  fectioii.  Their  most 

renowned  work  is  the  altarpiece  of  St.  Bavo  in  Ghent 
(The  Adoration  of  the  Lamb),  some  of  whose  panels 
are  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum  (two  others  in  Brussels). 

Wherever  we  find  great  geniuses  in  art  a substratum 
and  support  of  coworkers  of  excellence  may  always 
be  assumed.  This  again  presupposes  a considerable 
public  jiatronage.  Outside  of  Italy,  the  most  flourishing 
country'  of  Europe  in  the  fifteenth  century  was  Flanders 
(modern  Belgium),  then  a part  of  the  great  dukedom  of 

* Remembering  that  the  art  of  the  churches  was  the  controlling  one. 


NORTHEliN  GOTHIC  SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTIAG.  203 


Burgundy.  It  was  the  wealth  of  this  country  under 
Charles  the  Bold  and  his  predecessors  which  explains 
the  perfection  of 
Flemish  art  at  the 
time  of  the  Van 
Eycks. 

The  two  countries 
in  which  modern 
painting  first  devel- 
oped were  Italy  and 
Flanders,  because 
these  were  the  two 
countries  of  Europe 
which  first  realized 
the  highest  commer- 
cial and  manufactur- 
ing prosperity. 

Hans  Memling  and' 

Eoger  van  der  AVey- 
denwere  later  succes- 
sors of  the  A^an  Eycks 
in  the  same  century, 
of  somewhat  inferior 
caliber.  The  work 
of  Memling  rivals  in 
delicacy  that  of  the 
Van  Eycks,  but  he 
did  not  leave  works 
of  the  large  dimen- 
sions and  powerful  execution  which  distinguished  the 
Adoration  of  the  Lamb.  Memling’ s most  famous  works 
are  the  reliquary  chest  of  St.  Ursula  in  Bruges  (Fig. 
115),  and  an  altarpiece  in  Danzig,  The  Last  Judgment. 


204 


EOMAX  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


F1G.117.-THEFRESENT..TION.  MuuiCh.  VictUVe  Of  t h 6 

Roger  van  der  V eyden.  northern  Gotllic  art 

next  to  the  great  work  of  the  Van  Eycks.  This  is  the 
Adoration  of  the  Magi,  vith  flanking  panels  for  the 
stories  of  St.  Ursnla  and  St.  Gereon,  nov  in  the  choir 
of  Cologne  Cathedral,  the  famous  Kolner  Dombild.  The 


Koger  van  der  "Weyden,  vho  is  intermediate  in  time 
between  the  Van  Eycks  and  Memling,  has  much  of  the 
power  of  the  former  but  is  inferior  to  them  in  finish  and 
in  drawing,  his  work  being  somewhat  hard  and  angular. 
He  is  however  an  excellent  representative  of  the  average 

quality  of  northern 
Gothic  art  in  2^aint- 
ing,  before  it  was 
overshadowed  and 
displaced  in  the  six- 
teenth century  by  the 
Eenaissance  design  of 
Italy.  His  art  is  well 
represented  in  the 
Berlin  Museum.  One 
of  his  finest  pictru’es 
is  in  3Iadrid. 

The  School  of  Co- 
logne, one  of  the  great 
commercial  centers  of 
the  later  Middle  Ages, 
cannot  be  comjiared 
in  average  results 
with  the  Flemish,  but 
its  greatest  master, 
Stejihen  Lochuer,  ex- 
ecuted the  most  beau- 


NORTHERX  GOTHIC  SCULPTURE  AXD  PALS'TIXG.  205 


Gothic  paintings  of  South  Germany  and  of  Alsace  are 
more  interesting  for  historical  associations  and  for  pious 
purpose  than  for  color  or  drawing.  They  are  at  least 
an  excellent  foil  to  illustrate  the  high  perfection  of 
contemporary  Italian  painting.  The  best  painters  of 
Gothic  South  Germany  were  Martin  Schongauer  and 
Michael  \Yohlgemuth.  The  best  collections  of  early 
German  art  are  in  Munich,  Berlin,  and  Cologne.  The 
masterpieces  of  Flanders  are  especially  found  in  Bruges, 
Ghent,  Antwerp,  and  Brussels.  Many  have  found  their 
way  to  foreign  museums. 


Kro.  1 18.— Giti  i.i)  llAi.i,  oif  Tiiic  Ci.O'i'ii  MuitciiANT.s.  Yprcs. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


THE  SECULAR  ARD  ITALIAN  GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  great  comparative  perfection  of  Gothic  painting 
in  the  southern  Netherlands  leads  naturally  to  the 
mention  of  the  magnificent  guild  halls  and  town  halls  of 
the  same  country.  The  finest  secular  buildings  ever 
erected  in  Europe,  outside  of  Italy,  are  the  late  Gothic 
public  buildings  of  Belgium,  and  once  more  it  is  to  the 
commerce  and  manufactures  and  resulting  great  wealth 
and  power  of  the  country  that  we  must  turn  for  an  ex- 
planation. The  constant  alliance  between  the  English, 
kings  and  the  Burgundian  Dukedom  during  the  Franco- 
Euglish  wars  was  owing  to  the  interests  of  the  wool  trade 
— the  raw  material  being  furnished  by  England  and  the 
manufactures  by  the  Netherlands.  Among  the  magnifi- 
cent examples  of  this  secular  Gothic  are  the  great  halls 
of  Bruges,  Ghent,  Brussels,  Louvain,  and  Oudenarde. 
In  France  the  Palais  de  Justice  (town  hall)  of  Rouen 
is  the  finest  corresponding  example.  In  England  there 
are  some  of  the  best  survivals  of  the  old  feudal  castles 
and  of  the  medieval  houses  which  are  occasionally 
found  in  all  the  older  towns  of  Europe.  Picturesque 
qualities,  common  sense  construction,  and  bold  orig- 
inality of  individual  arrangement  are  as  apparent  in 
these  domestic  buildings  as  in  the  churches.  The  sys- 
tem of  exhibiting  the  beam  construction  in  timbered 


208 


EOMAN  AXD  MEDIEA'AL  ART. 


houses  is  a common  one,  showing  the  constructi%'e 
sense  and  frankness  of  the  Gothic. 

In  secular  domestic  buildings  there  is,  however,  no 
country  which  can  rival  Italy  for  the  fourteenth  and 


Fig.  119.— Palais  de  Justice.  Rouen. 


fifteenth  centuries,  and  it  is  especially  in  Venice  that 
the  private  palaces  of  the  nobles  still  shadow  forth  the 
role  played  in  history  by  the  earliest  modern  country  of 
modern  Europe. 

The  most  remarkable  examples  of  the  fortifications 
N which  were  necessary  in  all  the  medieval  towns  of 
Europe  are  found  at  present  in  Southern  France.  The 
fortifications  of  Carcasonne  and  of  Aigues  Mortes  are 
renowned  instances. 

It  is  in  the  so-called  Italian  Gothic  architecture  that 
the  medieval  independence  of  formulas  and  systems. 


THE  SECULAR  AND  ITALIAX  GOTHIC. 


209 


as  well  the  remarkable  independence  of  the  individual 
examples,  are  most  apparent.  The  Italian  Gothic  is 

mainly  not  Gothic  at 
all  in  any  character- 
istic sense.  In  fact 
its  main  features  are 
quite  antagonistic  to 
the  Gothic  system. 
The  words  specify  a 
period  rather  than  a 
style.  This  period 
corresponds  to  that  of 
the  northern  Gothic 
as  regards  general 
time  of  beginning  (1200  A.  D.),  and  ends  a little  earlier 
than  1500. 

The  only  first-class  truly  Gothic  cathedral  in  all 
Italy  is  that  of  Milan  (Fig.  101),  which  was  largely 
built  by  German 
architects,  and  in  lo- 
cality stands  nearest 
of  important  towns  to 
the  influence  of  the 
north.  Even  this 
cathedral  shows  im- 
portant deviations 
from  the  style  of  the 
northern  Gothic. 

Otherwise  the  Church 
of  St.  Francis  at  Assisi 
is  one  of  the  rare  in- 
stances of  an  approximately  northern  style  and  was 
also  built  by  a northern  architect. 


210 


E03IAN  AA’D  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


The  traits  of  Italian  Gothic  are  best  comprehended  by 
reverting  to  the  Italian  Eomanescjne  and  its  likewise  ex- 
ceptional position.  We  have  seen  that  the  basilica 
pattern  and  timber  ceiling  were  very  generally  em- 
ployed in  Italy,  and  especially  in  Tuscany,  through 
the  Eomanesque  period  (Figs.  87,  88,  89,  pp.  154,  155) 
and  that  the  Eomanesque  character  was  mainly  appar- 
ent in  decorative 
traits.  The  reason 
for  this  has  also  been 
stated  as  the  more 
abundant  supply  of 
ancient  columns  and 
the  greater  strength 
in  Italy  of  Byzantine 
and  early  Christian 
tradition.  It  was  not 
till  the  close  of  the 
Eomanesque  period 
that  vaulted  churches 
became  common 
throughout  Italy,  and 
in  their  proportions 
they  then  tended  to 
the  character  of  the 
Eomanesque  vaulted 
buildings,  but  with  ornamental  traits  which  show  some 
slight  northern  Gothic  influence. 

The  Cathedrals  of  Florence,  of  Siena,  of  Orvieto 
(Figs.  124,  125)  are  prominent  instances.  In  the 
views  of  Florence  and  of  Orvieto  we  notice  a system 
of  marble  paneling  or  of  horizontal  masonry  stripings, 
which  is  common  to  very  many  Italian  buildiugs  of 


Fig.  123.— Milan  Cathedral. 


212 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


Rig.  124.— Cathedral  of  Oryieto. 

the  time  and  which  is  derived  from  earlier  buildings 
under  Byzantine  influence,  like  the  Pisa  Cathedral  and 
St.  Mark’s  at  Venice.  The  most  sniierficial  comparison 
with  the  exteriors  of  the  northern  Gothic  will  show  how 
foreign  this  use  of  colored  marble  must  be  to  the 
accented  rising  lines,  buttresses,  pinnacles,  and  large 
windows  of  the  north. 

Tn  a corresponding  sense  it  holds  that  the  window 
openings  are  relatively  small,  the  window  tracery  wanting 
or  found  in  simple  elementary  forms,  while  the  buttresses 
are  rudimentary  and  without  pinnacles,  or  else  entirely 
lacking.  The  great  spires  of  the  north  are  also  wanting. 
The  belfries  (as  found  in  Italian  use  they  are  called 
“campaniles”)  are  separate  from  the  building  (Pig. 


THE  SECHLAK  AA’D  ITALIAX  GOTHIC. 


213 


125).  Gabled  ornaments  appear  as  reminiscences  of 
the  northern  style,  but  they  appear  in  low  relief  and  are 
never  projected  from  the  building,  as  ai^pears  by  com- 
paring St.  Maclou  at  Rouen  with  the  Cathedral  of 
Orvieto  (Figs.  102,  124). 

The  pointed  arch  is  general,  and  this  is  the  most 
distinct  indication  of  the  Gothic  influence,  but  it  is  only 
a question  of  ornamental  details,  not  of  a system  of  con- 
struction. The  round  arch  is  found  associated  with  it 
(Orvieto),  which  is  unknown  in  the  north.  Gothic 
tracery  in  the  round  arch,  as  found  in  the  Campo  Santo 
of  Pisa,  would  be  impossible  in  the  northern  Gothic. 

All  these  traits  of  the  exteriors  relate  to  a main 
fact  for  the  interiors,  viz.,  that  they  lack  the  lofty 


Fig.  125— Cathedral  of  Florence. 


214 


KOMAjS'  axd  medieval  akt. 


proportions  and  all  the  peculiar  dispositions  of  the 
northern  Gothic  buildings. 

These  various  distinctions  do  not  convey  in  any  sense 
a criticism  against,  or  depreciation  of,  the  Italian  Gothic, 
which  is  full  of  peculiar  beauties  and  originality.  They 

are  simply  statements 
of  fact  showing  the 
versatility  of  medieval 
architecture,  but  above 
all  conveying  an  un- 
derlying phase  of  gen- 
eral history.  The  Ital- 
ians were  the  earliest 
moderns,  the  first  to 
consciously  set  up  the 
ideal  of  modern  civil- 
ization and  to  con- 
sciously antagonize  the 
culture  and  feudal  in- 
stitutions of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  Their  preju- 
dice against  Gothic  cul- 
ture and  Gothic  art, 
Avhich  gave  us  the 
word  ‘^Gothic”  (p.  159),  and  which  ultimately  shaped 
itself  in  the  Eenaissance,  shows  its  forecast  and  proph- 
ecj^  in  the  so-called  Italian  Gothic,  by  its  antagonism  or 
indifference  to  northern  medieval  forms. 


Fig,  126.— Pulpit  of  the  Pis.\  B.\p- 
TisTEKY.  By  Nicolo  Pisano. 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 

ITALIAN  GOTHIC  PAINTING.* 

It  is  in  the  distinction  between  the  wall  surfaces 
which  were  preserved  by  Italian  buildings  and  those 
of  the  north,  which  were  distributed  into  window 
openings  and  buttresses,  that  we  find  a connection  with 
the  topic  of  Italian  painting  and  the  elementary  con- 
ditions of  its  development. 

The  Byzantine  and  early  Christian  system  of  church 
building  was  one  of  small  window  openings,  placed  as 
far  as  possible  in  the  upper  portions  of  the  building,  and 
of  large  interior  surfaces  devoted  to  the  gorgeous  color 
effects  of  the  mosaics.  The  Italians  of  the  fourteenth 
century  abandoned  the  mosaics,  but  they  replaced  them 
by  wall  frescoes  (paintings  on  plaster),  and  their  system 
of  wall  surfaces  required  for  the  frescoes  was  the  same  as 
that  required  for  mosaics.  It  is  here  that  the  real  break 
with  the  style  of  the  north  is  apparent.  The  northern 
buttress  was  essentially  necessary  as  the  support  of  a 
vaulted  ceiling  which  otherwise  lacked  the  necessary  sup- 
porting walls  ; for  the  development  of  the  window  open- 
ings amounted  to  the  absence  of  the  wall.  In  other 
words,  the  demand  for  frescoes  explains  the  Italian 
Gothic. 

» It  must  be  noticed  that  the  photographs  used  to  illustrate  this  topic 
have  the  merit  of  being  taken  directly  from  the  originals,  but  all  repro- 
ductions lacking  the  original  colors  are  necessarily  inadequate. 

215 


216 


ROMAN  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


The  system  of  stained  glass  decoi’atiou  shows  the 
romantic  and  poetical  exaltation  of  the  northern  artistic 
spirit.  The  effects  of  the  northern  Gothic  are  mysteri- 
ous and,  so  to  speak,  transcendental.  The  spirit  of 
the  Italian  was  cooler  and  clearer,  less  addicted  to 
mystery  and  romantic  effect — more  disposed  to  explicit 
story  telling  by  pictorial  art  than  to  mysterious  contrasts 
of  light  and  shade  in  nave  and  aisles.  The  interiors 
of  the  Italian  churches  are  sufficiently  lighted  by  normal 
■window  openings  of  small  dimensions.  Otherwise  the 
church  walls,  and  generally  also  the  walls  of  the  pub- 


Fig.  127.— Detail  of  the  Pisa  Pulpit.  The  Ckucifixiox. 

lie  buildings,  were  decorated  with  pictures  on  the 
plaster  surfaces. 

The  history  of  Italian  painting,  which  between  the 
fourteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  produced  all  the 


ITALIAN  GOTHIC  PAINTING. 


217 


greatest  works  of  modern  art  in  tliis  department,  is 
essentially  a history  of  wall  painting,  and  the  conditions 
of  its  perfection  and  greatness  are  all  to  be  sought 
and  found  in  this  point  of  departure. 


Fig.  128.— SctjI/Ptukb  of  Orvieto  Cathedrat..  Story  of  the  Creation. 
Giovanni  Pisano,  and  Scliolars. 


As  late  as  the  sixteenth  century  all  the  most  important 
pictures  were  wall  pictures.  Even  when  canvas  and 
oils  were  used,  as  in  Venice,  in  preference  to  painting 
on  a plaster  surface  it  was  still  wall  decoration  which  was 
the  main  pnrpose  of  the  art.  The  canvases  were 
directly  attached  to  the  walls  and  made  a part  of  their 
architectural  existence.  Panel  pictures,  that  is  to  say, 
detached  framed  pictures,  were  a subordinate  matter  and 
even  these  were  designed,  in  a great  majority  of  cases, 
for  definite  places — for  chapels,  churches,  shrines,  altar 


218 


ROMAX  AXD  ilEDIEVAL  ART. 


pictures,  and  the  like.  Above  all,  the  dexterity  and  the 
talent  of  the  artist  were  first  developed  by  his  practice 
as  a wall  painter.  The  composition  of  Eaphael’s 
Madonnas  is  determined,  for  instance,  by  the  methods 
which  he  practiced  as  a fresco  artist. 

It  must  be  considered,  then,  what  was  involved  for 
Italian  art  in  this  one  grand  fact  of  its  original  use  and 
main  purpose.  First,  it  follows  that  the  pictures  were 
made  for  public  uses  and  for  public  inspection,  and 
it  consequently  follows  that  they  were  made  to  meet 
a public  demand.  It  consequently  follows  also  that  the 

commissions  were 
large  in  scale  and  in 
the  amount  of  work 
to  be  done  by  a given 
artist,  and  it  follows 
that  there  was  a great 
deal  of  work  to  do 
for  a number  of  art- 
ists. It  follows  also 
that  the  artist  had  to 
meet  public  criticism 
when  he  failed  and 
that  he  received  pub- 
lic approbation  when 
he  succeeded.  It  also 
follows  that  his  sub- 
jects were  substan- 
tially dictated  by 
public  choice  as  re- 
gards their  general  matter  and  character  and  that  these 
subjects  were  in  advance  grateful  to  the  public. 

This  last  point  is  the  elementary  one  above  all  others. 


ITALIAN  GOTHIC  PAINTING. 


219 


Every  artist  who  is  ia  advance  doubtful  as  to  whether 
his  subject  matter  will  attract  an  audience  or  a buyer 
works  under  a disadvantage.  This  is,  in  general, 
the  weakness  of  the 
modern  artist,  who 
mainly  works  for  pri- 
vate buyers.  His  pic- 
tures are  painted  on 
speculation  as  regards 
the  choice  of  a sub- 
ject. In  Italy  the 
artist  was  told  in  ad- 
vance  what  was 
wanted,  as  an  artist 
always  naturally  will 
be  told  when  he  re- 
ceives a public  com- 
mission. More  than 
that,  the  choice  o f 
subjects  was  limited 

bv  tradition  and  bv  fig.  130.— Giotto.  Pythagoras  [Abith- 
^ METic].  Florence  Campanile. 

the  purposes  of  the 

art,  and  the  artist  was  familiar  in  advance  with  most 
that  were  likely  to  be  suggested.  These  were  the  stories 
of  Genesis,  the  lives  of  the  Saints  and  Apostles,  the 
great  historical  turning  points  in  the  history  of  the 
Church,  the  life  of  the  Savior,  the  events  of  His  Pas- 
sion, the  later  history  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

Let  it  not  be  considered  that  this  was  a narrow  or 
limited  range  of  choice.  For  the  conceptions  of  the 
Middle  Ages  the  Bible  was  an  epitome  of  the  life  of 
individual  man  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave  and  an 
epitome  of  the  history  of  the  human  race.  It  was  the 


220 


EOMAX  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


business  of  the  artist  to  illustrate  this  point  of  view  to 
make  it  clear  to  the  people.  They  themselves,  however, 
were  the  motive  power ; the  choice  of  subjects  was  made 

because  they  expected 
and  demanded  it.  To 
aid  and  suggest  to  the 
artist  was  the  business 
of  every  man  of  learn- 
ing and  every  man  of 
though  t — monks, 
clergy,  and  public 
officers  of  the  state 
being  his  direct  em- 
ployers. Finally  all 
the  genius,  talent,  in- 
vention, and  original- 
ity which  the  artist 
possessed  himself 
were  in  his  favor  and 
contributed  to  the 
success  of  the  general 
result. 

He  had,  moreover,  the  advantage  of  working  for  a 
definite  place.  His  picture  was  not  transported  from  a 
studio  of  one  light  to  be  hung  in  a gallery  with  another 
light.  It  was  not  exposed  to  the  vicissitudes  of  chance 
sales  or  the  gazers  of  shop  windows  and  tossed  about 
among  the  hanging  committees  of  picture  exhibitions. 
The  modern  painter  as  such  is  an  itinerant,  a Bohe- 
mian. In  America,  at  least,  he  lives  on  sufferance,  con- 
tending with  a mistaken  preference  for  foreign  pictures, 
with  the  whims  of  the  rich,  the  fashions  of  the  hour, 
and  the  great  difficulty  of  earning  his  bread.  The 


ITALIAN  GOTHIC  PAINTING. 


221 


Italian  painter  was  a respected  man  of  business,  a well- 
to-do  tradesman,  a successful  artisan,  in  a word,  a 
recognized  and  respected  member  of  society,  the  school- 
master of  his  age,  the  Sunday  school  superintendent, 
the  historian,  the  man  of  letters,  and  the  poet.  All  this 
was  involved  in  the  topics  of  Italian  art  in  an  age  when 
printing  was  unknown,  when  manuscript  books  were 
dear,  when  teaching  through  the  eye  and  by  object 
lessons  was  more  than  a theory  of  kindergartens. 

Add  to  these  conditions  the  material  considerations 
connected  with  the 


scale  of  the  designs 
and  the  method  of 
their  execution.  The 
paintings  were  rap- 
idly executed  in  light 
but  warm  colors,  with 
distinct  outlines  and 
summary  indication 
of  details,  on  damp 
plaster.*  When  the 
plaster  was  dry,  work 
was  impossible.  A 
given  surface  was 
plastered  each  day 
and  so  the  work  went 
on.  An  ultimate 
dexterous  rapidity  in 
outline  drawing  was 
one  result  of  this  fresco  art.  The  large  scale  of  the  pic- 
tures with  life-size  figures  also  demanded  bold  and  sim- 
ple compositions. 


Fig.  132.— The  Upper  Church  of  St. 
Francis.  Assisi. 


* Hence  the  ivord  “ fresco,"  or  painting  on  fresh  plaster. 


222 


EOMAN  AND  MEDIEYAD  AET. 


Finally,  we  have  to  consider  the  natural  development 
of  technical  improvements  and  devices  in  any  art  which 
is  much  practiced  because  much  in  demand.  The 
amount  of  commissions  and  the  number  of  artists  en- 
gaged on  them  are  grand  points  in  estimating  the  differ- 
ence between  Italian  painting  and  our  own.  Some 
of  the  simplest  technical  methods  of  mixing  paints 
and  colors  have  been  lost  since  the  sixteenth  century. 
No  modern  painter  can  tell  how  Titian  mixed  his 

colors  or  what  chem- 
ical composition  of 
pigments  he  e m - 
ployed.  Wherever 
there  is  large  de- 
mand for  any  art,  it 
naturally  rises  to  the 
level  of  the  demand. 
In  so  far  as  the  pub- 
lic at  large  is  more 
important  than  a 
private  individual, 
in  so  far  was  the 
Italian  painting  ulti- 
mately superior  to 
our  own. 

The  favorable  con- 
ditions under  which 
the  modern  art  of 
music  is  practiced 
offer  the  easiest 
means  of  under- 
standing the  perfec- 
tion  of  Italian  paint- 


ITALIA:^’  GOTHIC  PAINTING. 


223 


ing.  Given  a superior  voice  and  the  modern  singer  is 
certain  of  a well-paid  career.  Given  a distinct  musical 
talent  and  at  least  a well-paid  daily  occupation  is 
secure.  The  demand  creates  the  supply  and  the  supply 
makes  practice,  practice  makes  perfection. 

Doubtless  the  Italian  had  a native  genius  and  talent 
for  art,  but  there  were  centuries  when  it  lay  dormant  for 
want  of  patronage.  Once  more,  then,  we  must  come 
back  to  the  history  of  the  times  and  the  questions  of 
politics,  of  civilization,  and  of  commerce. 

In  the  earlier  Middle  Ages,  Italy  had  been  crushed  by 
foreign  barbarism.  The  nearer  the  German  was  to 
his  original  home  and  original  surroundings,  the  better 
use  he  ultimately  made  of  Eoman  civilization.  It  was 
in  Germany  itself  and  in  the  Eomanesque  art  of  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  that  we  have  found 
the  finest  works  of  early  medieval  art.  In  Italy  the 
Lombards  and  Ostrogoths  were  corrupted  by  luxury 
without  being  refined  by  civilization.  In  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries  Italy  at  large  was  the  most  barbarous 
country  in  Europe.*  Saracenic  incursions  from  Sicily, 
constant  German  invasions  from  the  north,  f and  the 
violence  of  the  Northmen  in  Naples  (eleventh  century) 
all  depressed  her  condition. 

From  this  depressed  condition  she  was  first  distinctly 
raised  by  the  popes  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies, who  carried  their  contest  with  the  emperors 
(p.  157)  to  a successful  issue  and  in  securing  the  in- 

* With  important  exceptions  for  Ravenna,  Venice,  and  some  cities  of  the 
South,  like  Amalfi  and  Salerno. 

t The  emperors  were  always  crowned  at  Rome  till  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. The  coronation  was  always  attended  by  the  march  of  a German 
army,  which  unsettled  and  disturbed  the  country  at  large,  and  which  very 
much  partook  of  the  character  of  an  invasion. 


224 


KOMAX  AXD  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


dependence  of  the  Lombard  towns  of  is^orth  Italy*  from 
the  emperor,  naturally  secured  the  liberties  of  the  more 
southern  states. 

From  this  time  date  the  independence  and  prosperity  of 
Italy  at  large,  a prosperity  which  had  previously  reached 
astounding  proportions  in  Pisa  and  Genoa  (eleventh  cen- 
tury) and  at  still  earlier  times  in  Eavenna  and  in  Venice. 
The  political  constitution  of  Italy  was  that  of  a series 

of  independent  civic 
states.  The  feudal  sys- 
tem had  never  taken 
deep  root  in  Italy,  and 
when  civilization  re- 
vived the  commerce 
and  manufactures  of 
the  towns  did  not  have 
to  struggle  with  the  ex- 
actions and  oppressions 
of  the  feudal  barons, 
which  in  Xorthern 
Euroiie  obliged  the 
cities  to  ally  themselves 
with  the  monarchy. 

The  civilization  of 
Italy  reached  in  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  a phenomenal 
Fig.  134.— Duccio.  The  madoxx.^.  perfection,  rivaling  in 
1 EKUGiA.  essential  points  that 

of  the  later  moderns,  which  has  been  almost  entirely 


* Battles  of  Alessandria  and  Legnano.  Submission  of  Henry  IV.  at 
Canossa  and  of  Barbarossa  at  Venice.  Leading  Popes,  Gregory  Vll.  and 
Alexander  VI. 


ITALIAN  GOTHIC  PAIXTIXG. 


225 


derived  from  it.  The  inventions  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury relate  generally  to  enlargements  in  the  area  of  civ- 
ilization or  increase  in  its  population.  The  various 
applications  of  machinery  relate  to  the  amount  of  pro- 
duction, not  to  the 


quality.  The  silks, 
laces,  and  velvets  of 
Italy  made  in  the 
fourteenth  century 
were  fully  equal  to 
ours.  The  same  point 
would  apply  to  all 
textile  fabrics,  imple- 
ments, and  utensils, 
furniture,  iiottery, 
glass,  and  the  ordi- 
nary luxuries  of  mod- 
ern life.  The  various 
applications  of  steam 
and  electricity  relate 
to  increased  speed  of  communication  or  intercourse  re- 
quired by  larger  areas,  but  they  do  not  affect  tlie  quality 
of  individual  culture.  Italy  mainly  possessed,  on  a small 
scale,  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  the  essen- 
tial features  of  modern  civilization  as  regards  luxuries 
and  comforts. 

Although  scientific  information  was  far  inferior  to  our 
own,  this  was  perhaps  fully  compensated  by  a versatility 
of  talents  and  capacities  in  the  individual  man,  made 
possible  by  the  small  area  of  his  surroundings,  to  which 
we  can  offer  no  parallel.  There  are,  for  instance,  no 
modern  artists  who  unite  in  one  person  the  capacities 
of  an  engineer,  poet,  highly  educated  man  of  letters. 


Fig.  13.5.— Giotto.  St.  Joachim  driven 
FROM  THE  Temple.— Arena  Chapel, 
Padua. 


226 


EOMAX  AXD  ilEDIEYAE  ART. 


Fig.  136.— Giotto.  St.  Joachim  accom- 
plishes THE  Sacrifice.  Arena 
Chapel,  Padua. 


architect,  painter,  and  sculptor,  and  who  have  made 
actual  test  of  capacity  in  all  these  directions.  Leonardo 

da  Yinci  and  Michael 
Angelo  did  all  these 
things  and  did  them 
all  equally  well.  Da 
Vinci  was  also  an  ac- 
complished musician 
who  knew  how  to  make 
his  own  instruments 
and  was  one  of  the 
greatest  men  of  science 
of  his  day. 

These  cases  of  versa- 
tility are  paralleled  by 
other  notorious  cases 
which  illustrate  a gen- 
eral versatility  in  the  nation  at  large.  Our  own  scien- 
tific advances  have 
obliged  men  to  special- 
ize their  talents  and 
to  narrow  their  field. 

Without  wishing  to 
depreciate  the  i m - 
portance  of  our  own 
advance,  we  must  be 
willing  to  concede  the 
advantages  e n j o y e d 
by  earlier  periods  in 
contrast  with  our  own. 

As  a result  of  the 
unconscious  education 
of  the  faculties  which  is  reached  by  a variety  of  occu- 


Fig.  137.— Giotto.  Birth  of  the  Virgin. 
Arena  Chapel,  Padua. 


ITALIAX  - GOTHIC  PAIXTING. 


227 


pationSj  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  average  Italian  of 
the  fifteenth  century  was,  at  least,  fully  the  mental  and 
physical  equal  of  the  modern  in  any  department  of 
daily  life.  His  possible  scientific  knowledge  was  less, 
but  his  actual  education  was  more  symmetrical  and  more 


Fig.  138.— Giotto.  Mary’s  Suitors  receiving  the  Eods  from 
THE  High  Priest.  Arena  Cliapel,  Padua. 


comprehensive,  because  it  was  less  specialized  and  more 
versatile,  whereas  versatility  in  our  day  is  generally 
supposed  to  indicate  superficiality  and  to  be  incon- 
sistent with  thoroughness. 

The  perfection  of  Italian  art  is  also  involved  in  this 


228 


KOMAZS"  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


STimmary  of  the  conditions  of  daily  life.  The  Italian 
artist  was  sometimes  a recognized  statesman,  politician, 
and  general.  Michael  Angelo  was  the  captain  general 
of  his  state  during  the  siege  of  Florence  in  1.529,  and  is 
the  inventor  of  the  system  of  fortifications  usually 
attributed  to  Yauban  in  the  time  of  Louis  XI Y.  of 
France.  Leonardo  da  Yinci  was  the  military  engineer  of 
Ctesar  Borgia  and  wrote  the  first  treatise  on  the  use  of 
artillery.  Eaphael  was  offered  the  rank  of  a cardinal 
and  was  sculptor  and  architect  as  well  as  painter  ; 
Benvenuto  Cellini  was  musician,  goldsmith,  sculptor, 
and  cannoneer.  Giotto  the  painter  was  an  eciually  great 
architect  and  sculptor  and  a personal  friend  of  the  poet 
Dante.  In  all  these  cases  the  varied  activity  and  ex- 
perience of  the  artist  reacted  on  his  art  and  the  man 
did  what  he  uxis. 

As  regards  the  peculiar  distinctions  of  various  Italian 
states,  something  has  also  to  be  said.  Milan  was  the 
capital  of  the  fertile  agricultural  districts  of  the  north. 
Genoa,  Yenice,  and  Pisa  were  great  in  commerce.  The 
Universities  of  Bologna  and  Padna  were  famous  centers 
of  learning.  Florence  was  the  home  of  bankers  and 
manufacturers.  Ferrara  was  a model  of  administrative 
politics.  Siena,  Perugia,  and  Urbino  were  all  impor- 
tant commercial  and  manufactnring  republics.  These 
were  the  various  great  centers  of  Italian  art.  Pome  and 
Xaples  Avere  less  active.  Rome  was  a center  to  which 
finished  talent  was  naturally  drawn  and  the  native 
artists  could  not  vie  with  the  genius  of  the  whole  of 
Italy  which  Avas  always  at  the  call  of  the  popes.  Xaples 
did  not  escape  from  foreign  rule  through  the  entire 
Middle  Ages. 

From  all  these  A'arious  ways  of  conceiA-ing  the  culture 


ITALIAN  GOTHIC  PAINTING. 


229 


of  Italy  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  we 
move  to  the  actual  monuments  of  the  art'  of  painting 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  which  was  the  first  in  which 
Italy  achieved  even  relative  perfection  in  this  art.  The 
fifteenth  century,  as  belonging  to  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance, is  excluded  from  the  topic  of  this  book  as  far  as 
Italy  is  concerned. 

The  greatest  early  painters  of  Italy  were  Duccio  of 
Siena,  and  Cimabue  and  Giotto  of  Florence,  but  these 
men  of  genius,  it  must  be  remembered,  were  not  isolated 
in  their  greatness. 

Snccessful  genius 
means  helpers,  assist- 
ers,  supporters,  rivals, 
followers,  and  prede- 
cessors. Among  these 
men  Cimabue  is  dis- 
tinguished as  the  first 
great  innovator  on 
Byzantine  methods. 

Duccio’s  genius  may 
be  fairly  compared 
with  Giotto’s  as  an 
expert  in  design,  bnt 
the  latter  is  better 
known  for  his  wider  inflnence  and  wider  personal  activ- 
ity and  not  less  remarkable  for  his  original  and  thonght- 
fnl  genius  of  conception. 

Photographs  and  engravings  are  a poor  substitute  for 
Italian  frescoes,  but  even  in  face  of  the  originals  we 
have  still  to  make  many  concessions  to  the  shortcomings 
of  the  first  efforts  of  modern  painting,  and  for  the 
deficiences  involved  in  the  break  with  the  traditions 


230 


EOMAX  AND  MEDIEVAL  AET. 


of  Byzantine  mosaic  which  had  been  the  traditional 
authority  of  Italian  art  for  nine  entire  centuries.  Cima- 
bue  himself  designed  one  of  these  mosaics  in  Pisa. 

The  fourteenth  century  frescoes  must  be  judged  first 

as  compositions  in 
color  and  as  wall  dec- 
orations in  color. 
From  this  point  of 
view  they  are  thor- 
oughly successful. 
They  must  be  judged 
next  as  serious  and 
faithful  efibrts  to  real- 
ize the  inner  meaning 
and  significance  of  the 
Bible  stories.  From 
this  point  of  view  they 
are  thoroughly  suc- 

Fig.  110.— Giotto.  The  Feight  into  Cessful.  As  aichitCC- 
egypt.  Arena  Chapel,  Padua.  tural  Compositions  in 

outline  they  are  also  fine  efforts.  That  they  are  often 
cpiaint  in  details  and  inadecxuate  in  execution  of  realistic 
accessories  must  be  readily  admitted. 

They  cannot,  however,  be  justly  judged  in  this  par- 
ticular from  the  standpoint  of  a realistic  nineteenth  cen- 
tury painting.  Many  decorative  considerations  assert 
themselves  when  pictures  are  painted  on  plaster  walls, 
which  do  not  hold  for  smaller  canvas  pictures'executed 
in  oil  color.  Details  cannot  be  elaborated  on  such  a sur- 
face and  with  the  mediums  used  for  mixing  the  colors, 
nor  is  it  desirable  that  they  should  be.  Suggestion 
and  slight  indication  of  accessories  were  sufficient  for  an 
art  where  the  jioint  and  moral,  or  fact,  of  the  story 


ITALIAX  GOTHIC  PAIXTING. 


231 


were  the  main  thing  and  nature  was  only  the  means  to 
an  end.  Due  concessions  must  be  also  made  to  the 
general  attitude  of  medieval  Christian  art  as  determined 
by  tradition  and  historic  conditions. 

The  fourteenth  century  Italian  painting  at  large  may 
be  fairly  illustrated 
from  the  work  of 
Giotto.  N o artist  sur- 
passed him  iu  tech- 
nical proficiency 
during  the  entire  cen- 
tury. He  was  never 
surpassed  in  solem- 
nity, in  seriousness,  in 
religious  feeling,  and 
in  original  power. 

The  artists  of  his 
time  were  frequently 
his  equals  and  worthy 
rivals  in  individual  works.  The  fourteenth  century 
painting  has  then  these  following  general  qualities.  It 
did  not  attemiit  facial  portraiture,  it  did  not  elaborate 
backgrounds  or  landscape  details,  it  did  not  attempt 
perspective.  The  action  and  gesture  are  treated  with 
more  or  less  success,  according  to  the  individual  genius 
and  talent.  The  idea  was  the  main  thing.  The  artist 
was  satisfied  when  he  had  conveyed  it,  and  the  public 
was  satisfied  when  it  grasped  it. 

The  universally  quoted  monument  of  Giotto’s  great- 
ness is  the  fresco  decoration  of  a chapel  in  Padua,  which 
was  begun  in  1303 — the  Chapel  of  Santa  Maria  dell’ 
Arena.  There  are  also  im^iortant  works  by  this  artist 
in  Florence  (Church  of  Santa  Croce),  iu  Assisi  (Church 


Kid.  1 12.  -() idi  TO.  Tm;  Dni'osi  i iiiN.  .\n'im  Cliiipi'l,  i’mhin.. 


ITALIAN  GOTHIC  PAINTING. 


233 


of  St.  Francis),  and  elsewhere.  The  School  of  Giotto 
and  of  the  fourteenth  century  at  large  is  otherwise 
best  known  through  the  frescoes  of  the  Chapel  of  the 
Spaniards  in  Florence  (Church  of  Maria  Ifovella),  and  of 
the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa.  This  last  spot  is  the  burial 
ground  of  the  city  reserved  for  distinguished  citizens 


Fig.  143.— The  Campo  Sahto.  Pisa. 

and  surrounded  by  cloisters  on  whose  inner  walls  is 
a long  series  of  famous  paintings,  among  which  the  most 
noted  are  the  Triumph  of  Death  and  the  Last  Judg- 
ment. It  was  also  in  Pisa  that  the  Italian  sculptor’s  art 
began  its  history  and  that  its  earliest,  and  therefore 
in  many  senses  most  famous,  monument  is  found. 


CHAPTEE  XIV. 

ITALIAN  GOTHIC  SCULPTURE. 

The  contrast  with,  the  Gothic  art  of  the  north  which 
has  been  drawn  so  far  continues  in  the  history  of  its 
sculpture.  The  Milan  Cathedral  is  the  only  one  in  Italy 
which  rivals  the  profusion  of  northern  Gothic  sculpture 
as  used  for  architectural  decoration  and  its  statues,  them- 
selves individually  of  minor  merit,  are  in  no  sense  con- 
nected with  the  history  of  Italian  art.  In  amount  of 
production  the  Italian  Gothic  sculpture  caunot  for  a 
moment  be  compared  with  that  of  Xorthern  Europe.  It 
was  also  distinctly  later  in  its  earliest  development, 
but  in  the  artistic  and,  so  to  speak,  professional  quality 
of  its  more  limited  number  of  productions,  it  stands 
in  reputation,  and  in  fact,  far  higher.  There  is  no 
Gothic  sculpture  outside  of  Italy  which  can  be  con- 
sidered aside  from  its  architectural  connection.  Sculp- 
ture, for  its  own  sake,  for  the  sake  of  form  and 
science,  is  distinctly  Italian  in  its  origin  as  far  as 
modern  times  are  concerned.  The  northern  Gothic 
sculpture  had  no  sequence  of  perfected  development. 
It  rather  retrograded  in  its  later  phases  and  was  finally 
supplanted  in  the  time  of  the  Eenaissance  by  the  in- 
fluences of  its  Italian  rival. 

The  first  development  of  Italian  sculpture  preceded  by 
nearly  fifty  years  the  art  of  Giotto,  and  undoubtedly 

234 


ITALIAN  GOTHIC  SCULPTURE. 


236 


made  the  first  break  with  the  formalism  of  the  Byzan- 
tine style  or  the  crude  barbarism  of  the  more  native  art 
of  Italy  (Fig.  92).  It  was  distinctly  a great  and  phe- 
nomenal genius,  Nicolo  of  Pisa,  who  resurrected  the  arts 
of  form  in  Italy.  His  epoch-making  work  is  the  pulpit 
of  the  Pisa  Baptistery  (1261).*  A somewhat  later  work 
of  the  same  class  by  FTicolo  is  in  the  Cathedral  of  Siena. 


Fig.  m.— The  Campo  Santo.  Pisa. 

As  illustrated  by  the  views  (Figs.  126,  127),  the  style 
of  Aicolo  was  founded  on  the  antique.  Some  of  the 
Greco-Eoman  sarcophagi,  from  which  he  made  his 
studies,  are  still  preserved  in  Pisa.  His  work,  however, 
is  simple  and  naive,  original  and  profoundly  thought- 
ful— as  distinct  from  a mechanical  and  servile  depend- 


* The  Baptistery  itself  is  seen  in  Fig.  S7, 


Fig.  14-5.— The  Municipal  Palace.  Prato. 


ITALIAN  G^OTIIIC  SCULPTUKE. 


237 


ence  on  antique  art.  His  son  Giovanni  followed  in  liis 
footsteps  with  somewhat  more  distinct  relations  to  the 
northern  sculpture  of  his  time.  Among  his  many  beau- 
tiful works,  we  may  mention  the  reliefs  of  the  Orvieto 
Cathedral  executed  with  assistance  of  his  scholars. 
There  was  an  entire  school  of  Pisan  artists  largely  em- 
ployed throughout  Italy  in  the  fourteenth  century.  The 
bronze  doors  by  An- 
drea of  Pisa,  made  for 
the  Florence  Baptis- 
tery, are  among  the 
important  p r o d u c - 
tions  of  this  school. 

The  reliefs  from  the 
designs  by  Giotto,  on 
the  bell  tower  (cam- 
panile) of  the  Flor- 
ence Cathedral,  are 
beautiful  examxiles  of 
Italian  Gothic  thought 
and  science.  The 
Italian  fourteenth 
century  was  not,  how- 
ever, iiroliflc  in  works 
of  sculpture.  The  art 
of  fresco  was  more 
Xiopnlar  and  more  affected,  but  all  that  was  done  was 
profoundly  significant  for  the  development  of  the 
Renaissance  which  followed  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
Before  closing  our  account  of  the  medieval  art  on  the 
threshold  of  this  ‘‘rebirth,”  * we  may  turn  a moment’s 
attention  to  the  secular  buildings  of  the  Italian  Gothic. 

* The  English  translation  of  the  word  Renaissance. 


Fig.  lie.— The  Municipal  Palace. 
Voiterra. 


238 


eo:man  and  :jiEDiEyAL  aet. 


Among  tlie  most  interesting  Italian  buildings  are  its 
secular  monuments,  the  great  town  halls  and  civic 
palaces,  especially  interesting  as  reminders  of  the  active 
municipal  life  to  which  the  Italian  art  owed  so  much  of 
its  greatness.  This  was  especially  fostered  by  the  public 


mTiPTsfltniTWj  iiii! 


P'lG.  147.— Palazzo  Ca  D'Oro.  Venice. 


spirit  of  the  citizens  and  by  the  rivalries  of  the  various 
republics,  each  vicing  with  the  other  to  produce  some 
unique  work  of  art. 

The  Palazzo  Yecchio  (old  palace)  of  Florence  is  the 
most  famous  of  these  buildings.  Beside  it  stands  the 
grand  Loggia  Dei  Lanzi  (the  portico  of  the  lancemen, 
i.  e.,  of  the  town  guard).  The  town  halls  of  Tolterra 
and  Prato  are  characteristic  examples  of  these  massive 


ITALIAN  GOTHIC  SCULPTURE. 


23& 


and  fortress-like  structures,  which  literally  were  town 
fortresses  built  to  withstand  the  stormy  outbreaks  and 
civic  convulsions  in  which  the  overflowing  vigor  of  these 
municipalities  found  vent.  The  massive  simplicity  of 
these  buildings  is  worthy  of  all  praise.  They  are  direct 
continuations  of  similar  structures  of  older  time  and 
only  in  the  arch  of  doors  or  windows  do  we  find  the 
means  of  dating  them  in  point  of  style. 

In  marked  contrast  to  these  buildings  are  the  private 
palaces  of  the  Vene- 
tian Gothic.  Here  a 
pleasure-loving  and 
opulent  life  flourished 
at  an  early  day.  The 
strong  constitution  of 
V enice  saved  her  from 
the  anarchy  which  so 
often  befell  the  re- 
publics and  petty  des- 
potisms of  Tuscany 
and  her  buildings 
have  none  of  the 
ominous  impressive- 
ness of  those  just  de- 
scribed. The  palaces 
of  her  nobles  are, 

taken  in  mass,  the  Fig.  HS-Palazzo  Francetti.  Venice. 

earliest  decorative  private  buildings  of  Europe.  The 
same  purely  decorative  use  of  Gothic  forms,  otherwise 
noted  in  the  Italian  Gothic,  is  also  apparent  here.  The 
Palace  of  the  Doge  at  Venice  is  the  most  splendid 
example  of  the  style. 

Various  references  in  foregoing  pages  (187,  214,  229, 


240 


R03IAX  AND  MEDIEVAL  ART. 


234)  have  indicated  that  medieval  thought  and  culture, 
and  consequently  medieval  art,  were  displaced  in  the 
sixteenth  century  by  a movement  of  Italian  origin 
known  as  the  Eenaissance.  The  beginnings  of  modern 
history,  which  for  Northern  Europe  are  first  distinctly 
visible  in  the  sixteenth  century,  must  all  be  sought  in 


Rig.  id.— Detail  froji  the  Doge's  Palace.  \'euice. 

Italy  by  any  correct  philosophy  of  history.  Hence  it 
will  be  observed  that  the  history  of  medieval  art.  as 
sketched  in  this  book,  closes  a century  earlier  for  Italy 
than  for  Northern  Europe.  TTe  have  carried  the  history 
of  the  northern  Gothic  architecture,  sculiiture,  and 
painting  as  far  as  the  sixteenth  century,  but  for  Italy  we 
have  drawn  the  line  at  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  ceu- 


NORTHERN  GOTHIC  SCULPTURE. 


241 


tury.  Strictly  speaking  we  cannot,  however,  specify  a 
distinctly  Eenaissance  art  in  sculpture  and-  painting  be- 
fore 1425,  or  a distinctly  Eenaissance  architecture  before 
1450.  On  the  other  hand  the  Italian  Gothic  period  is 
full  of  anticipations  and  forecasts  of  the  approaching 
revolution.  In  Italian  architecture  the  repugnance  to 
the  northern  Gothic  has  this  significance.  In  sculpture 
the  Italian  Gothic  already  exhibits,  with  Nicolo  of  Pisa, 
the  antique  influence  which  is  characteristic  of  Eenais- 
sance art.  The  awakening  interest  in  visible  nature,  as 
distinct  from  the  traditional  repetition  of  religious  form- 
ulas in  art,  which  is  an  equally  characteristic  phase  of 
the  Eenaissance,  is  already  distinctly  visible  in  the 
painting  of  Giotto  and  his  period. 


INDEX. 


Adoration  of  the  Lamb  (Van  Eycks’  painting),  202. 

Aisles,  of  churches,  origin,  118,  119. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  Charlemagne’s  chapel,  112. 

Alcazar,  Seville,  131 ; Fig.  77. 

Aldobrandini  Wedding  (Roman  fresco),  64. 

Alhambra,  the,  I3l ; Fig.  76. 

Amiens  Cathedral,  172,  185  ; Fig.  105. 

Amphitheaters,  Roman,  56  ; Fig.  31. 

Andrea  of  Pisa,  237. 

Antwerp  Cathedral,  186. 

Apse,  origin,  118  ; Gothic  development,  189. 

Aqueducts,  Roman,  52, 53  ; Figs  16,  20. 

Arab  art,  128-133  ; derived  from  Byzantine,  130  ; ornamental 
system,  130  ; minarets,  130. 

Arabesque  ornament,  origin,  130. 

Arch,  Etruscan,  25  ; Roman,  62-57,  74 ; of  Constantine,  116 ; 
arch  and  column  (Byzantine),  119,  120  ; Arab  “ horseshoe” 
131 ; Arab  pointed,  131 ; Romanesque,  143-152  ; Gothic, 
170-174  ; Tudor,  188, 

Architecture  (see  Roman,  Early  Christian,  Byzantine,  Roman- 
esque, and  Gothic). 

Arena  Chapel,  Padua,  231 ; Figs.  135-142. 

Arian  Baptistery  (Ravenna),  132. 

Arles,  56,  85,  102. 

Armenian  Churches,  113. 

Assisi,  Church  of  St.  Francis,  209,  231  ; Fig.  132. 

Bamberg  Cathedral,  141. 

Baptistery,  Churches,  131  ; of  St.  John  Lateran,  122 ; of  Pisa, 
194  ; of  Florence,  237. 

Basilica,  pagan,  55  ; Christian,  117-121  ; origin  of  the  term, 

243 


244 


IXDEX. 


120  ; of  St.  Peter,  Rome,  82  ; of  St.  Paul,  Rome,  82 ; of 
Constantine,  117. 

Baths,  Roman,  53-55  ; Fig.  30. 

Battle  of  Issus  (mosaic),  64. 

Bayeux,  Churches  of,  141. 

Bell  towers,  121,  150,  212,  213. 

Berlin  INIuseum,  66. 

Bethlehem,  Church  of  the  Manger,  82,  113,  120  ; Fig.  .50. 
Beauvais  Cathedral,  172. 

Bologna,  San  Petronio,  172. 

Bronze  utensils,  ancient,  24,  65  ; Fig.  41. 

Brussels,  Church  of  St.  Gudule,  186. 

Buttress,  Gothic,  178-183  ; flying,  181. 

Bucchero  ware,  18. 

Burgos  Cathedral,  172,  186. 

Byzantine  Art,  100-111 ; adjective  explained,  102  ; mosaics, 
105;  sculpture,  110,  111;  painting,  110;  duration  of  the 
style,  134  ; art  displaced  by  Italian,  229. 

Caen,  Churches,  141. 

Cairo,  129. 

Campanile,  212,  213. 

Campo  Santo,  Pisa,  213,  233  ; Figs.  143,  144. 

Canterbury  Cathedral,  18S,  189. 

Capitals,  classic,  24,25,  51;  Byzantine,  125,  126;  Arab,  130; 

Romanesque,  154 ; Gothic,  184. 

Carthage,  founded,  15  ; wars  with  Rome,  35. 

Catacomb  paintings,  81,  83  ; Fig.  49. 

Cathedral  (see  Byzantine,  Romanesque,  and  Gothic). 

Chartres  Cathedral,  185,  198;  Fig.  111. 

Choir,  origin,  118,  119  ; Romanesque,  151 ; Gothic,  118,  119, 189. 
Christian  art,  causes  of  early  inferiority,  93-99. 

Christianity,  in  the  Roman  Empire,  77  ; antagonism  to  pagan 
art,  78  ; ideal  of  its  early  art,  78. 

Church  of  the  Manger,  Bethlehem,  82,  113,  120  ; Fig.  50. 
Cimabue,  229  ; Fig.  133. 

Clerestory,  190. 

Cloaca  Maxima,  26,  34  ; Fig.  11. 

Cologne  Cathedral,  172,  185,  190,  204 ; Figs.  93,  94. 

Colosseum,  56  ; Fig.  34. 


INDEX. 


245 


Columns,  “engaged,”  58,  59  ; combined  with  arches,  119,  120  ; 

distinguished  from  piers,  146. 

Composite  Order,  25,  52  ; Fig.  29. 

Copts,  influence  on  Arab  art,  130. 

Cordova,  Mosque,  131. 

Corinthian  Order,  51. 

Decadence,  of  Roman  art,  75-80. 

Decoration  (see  Ornament). 

“Decorative”  English  Gothic,  187. 

Diptychs,  85  ; Fig.  55. 

Dome,  Roman,  52,  55,  124;  in  Christian  Churches,  122-124; 

Byzantine,  124  ; Mohammedan,  129  ; Romanesque,  151. 
Duccio,  229  ; Fig.  134. 

Durham  Cathedral,  151. 

Early  Christian  art,  74-127. 

“ Early  English”  Gothic,  187. 

East  Jordan  ruins,  42  ; Fig.  21  ; churches,  113. 

Egyptian  influence  on  ancient  Italian  art,  15,  20. 

Enamels,  Byzantine  and  Romanesque,  155  ; Fig.  91. 

Engaged  columns,  58,  59,  117. 

Entablatures,  59. 

Etruscan  art,  14-28. 

“Flamboyant”  Gothic,  188. 

Flemish  painting,  202-205. 

Florence,  Cathedral  dome,  124 ; Cathedral,  210 ; Fig.  125 ; 

municipal  architecture,  238. 

Freiberg  sculpture,  142. 

Frescoes,  Roman,  61 ; Romanesque,  142,  155  ; Italian,  108,  216, 
235. 

Furniture,  Roman,  65. 

Gable  ornament,  Roman  and  Renaissance,  59  ; Gothic,  183. 
Galla  Placidia  tomb  (mosaics),  108. 

Gargoyles,  192  ; Fig.  110. 

Gems,  Etruscan,  24  ; Roman,  192  ; Fig.  48. 

Gerona  Cathedral,  173. 

Giotto,  229  ; Figs.  135-142. 

Giovanni  Pisano,  237 ; Figs.  128,  131. 

Giralda,  the  (Seville),  131. 

Glass,  Roman,  67,  86  ; Fig.  13. 


246 


INDEX. 


Gothic  art,  156-241  ; its  architecture  of  French  origin,  157; 
period  si^ecified,  158  ; word  explained,  158  ; vaultings,  170- 
174,  180 ; cathedral  dimensions,  172 ; joiers,  174,  175 ; 
buttress,  178-183  ; pinnacles,  181-183  ; caiDitals,  184  ; orna- 
ment, 184  ; great  cathedrals  specified,  185, 186  ; distinctions 
of  style  and  period,  186-189  ; cathedral  plan,  189  ; spires, 
190  ; picturesque  qualities,  190-194  ; gargoyles,  192  ; sculp- 
ture, 178,  195-199  ; painting  (Flemish  and  German),  199- 
205 ; stained  glass,  200,  201  ; municipal  and  domestic 
architecture,  207,  208  ; castles,  207 ; fortifications,  208 ; 
Italian,  210-214,  238-241. 

Guildhalls  (Gothic),  207  ; Figs.  118,  119. 

Greek  colonies,  in  Italy,  16  ; influence  on  Etruscan  art,  19-23  ; 
influence  on  Roman  art,  44. 

Grotesque  ornament  (Romanesque),  154. 

Hereford  Cathedral,  142  ; Fig.  82. 

Herculaneum,  66. 

Hildesheim,  silver  find,  66  ; bronze  cathedral  doors,  100,  142  ; 
font,  142  ; churches,  141  ; Fig.  81. 

Iconoclasts,  110. 

Ionic  Order,  51. 

Irish  art.  111. 

Italian  art,  early  ancient,  14-24  ; Gothic  architecture,  209-214; 
painting,  215-233  ; sculpture,  234-241. 

Ivory  carvings,  85  ; Figs.  55,  90,  92,  113. 

Jerusalem,  IMosque  el  Aksa,  128  ; Fig.  73 ; Mosque  of  Omar, 
122,  128  ; Fig.  74. 

Julius  Ctesar,  36,  75. 

Kolner  Dombild,  204. 

Laon  Cathedral,  185. 

Last  Judgment,  fresco  in  Pisa,  233. 

Lateral!  Museum,  85. 

Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa,  194  ; Fig.  87. 

Lichfield  Cathedral,  Figs.  108,  112. 

Lincoln  Cathedral,  172,  198;  Fig.  96. 

Louvre  Museum,  69. 

Lucca,  textile  manufactures  derived  from  Oriental,  133  ; cathe- 
dral, 154  ; Fig.  89. 

Mainz  Cathedral,  141  ; Fig.  83. 


INDEX. 


247 


Majolica,  Arab  origin,  132. 

Maison  Carrie  of  Nimes,  49  ; Fig.  25. 

Master  Masons  of  the  Middle  Age,  167,  193. 

Melrose  Abbey,  170  ; Fig.  97. 

Memling,  Hans,  203-205  ; Figs.  115,  116. 

Milan  Cathedral,  172,  178,  186,  209  ; Figs.  101,  123. 

Minarets,  130. 

Mohammedan  art,  128-133. 

Moresque  ornament,  126. 

Mosaics,  Roman,  64  ; Byzantine,  105-110,  127  ; Figs.  36,  39,  60, 
61,  62,  63. 

Mosques,  origin  and  character,  128-131 ; of  Omar,  113,  122, 
133  ; El  Aksa,  128  ; of  Cairo,  129  ; of  Cordova,  131. 
Mullions,  178. 

Naples  Museum,  46,  47,  61,  64,  65,  69. 

Nave,  origin,  118,  119  ; Romanesque,  152  ; Gothic,  189. 

New  York  Museum,  16,  68,  73. 

Nicolo  of  Pisa,  155,  235  ; Figs.  126,  127. 

Nimes,  49,  56. 

Norman  style  (so-called),  141,  142,  152. 

Notre  Dame,  Cathedral  of,  185  ; Fig.  110. 

Noyon  Cathedral,  185. 

Oratories,  early  Irish,  112. 

Oriental  influence  in  Italian  art,  16,  29. 

Origin  of  Mediterranean  civilization,  10. 

Ornament,  Roman,  57-73  ; Byzantine,  125-127  ; Arab,  129-133  •, 
Romanesque,  154  ; Gothic,  184. 

Orvieto,  Cathedral,  210  ; reliefs,  237  ; Figs.  124,  128. 

Padua,  Arena  Chapel,  231  ; Figs.  135-142. 

Painting,  Roman,  61-64  ; Catacombs  (early  Christian),  83-85  ; 
Byzantine,  110  ; Romanesque,  155  ; Gothic  (Flemish  and 
German),  199-205  ; Italian,  215-233. 

Palace  of  Diocletian,  55,  119. 

Palermo  Cathedral,  132. 

Palma  Cathedral,  172. 

Palmyra  ruins,  60. 

Pantheon,  55,  77  ; Fig.  31. 

“Perpendicular”  Gothic,  187. 

Persecutions,  Christian,  76. 


248 


INDEX. 


Peterborough  Cathedral,  142  ; Fig.  78. 

Petra,  rock-tombs,  60. 

Phenician  influence  in  Italy,  15. 

Piers,  defined,  119  ; Romanesque,  143,  145,  146  ; Gothic,  174, 
175. 

Pinnacles,  Gothic,  181-183. 

Pisa,  cathedral  dome,  124;  cathedral,  141,  154  (Figs.  87,  88),- 
Baptisteiy,  194 ; Leaning  Tower,  194  ; Campo  Santo,  213, 
233  (Figs.  143,  144)  ; frescoes,  233  ; Baptistery  pulpit,  235. 

Pointed  arch,  Arab,  131  ; Gothic,  170-174. 

Polledrara  tomb,  19. 

Pompeii,  60-67. 

Portland  vase,  67. 

Pottery,  Roman,  67. 

Prehistoric  Age  and  art,  9-11,  112. 

Ravenna,  sarcophagi,  8-5  ; history,  96  ; classic  decadence,  102 ; 
Exarchate,  103  ; mosaics,  107  ; churches,  113-119,  122. 

Regulini-Galassi  tomb,  19. 

Renaissance  style,  57,  187  , 214,  229,  234,  237,  240,  241. 

Rheims  Cathedral,  185. 

Rouen,  Church  of  St.  Ouen,  185. 

Roman  art,  distinctions  of  period,  13  ; territories,  36  ; archi- 
tecture, 48-61  ; sculpture,  44—48,  69-73  ; decorative  art,  6-5- 
68 ; painting,  61-64 ; art  decadence,  87,  88 ; Christian 
period,  81-86. 

Romanesque  art,  134-155  ; adjective  explained,  143;  duration 
and  period,  134  ; character,  136,  137 ; cathedrals  located, 
141  ; frescoes,  142 ; sculpture,  142-1.55  ; architecture,  143- 
154. 

Russian  art,  derived  from  Byzantine,  110,  134. 

St.  Denis  Cathedral,  161. 

St.  Mark’s  (Venice),  105,  122,  126. 

St.  Paul’s  (London)  dome,  124. 

Pt.  Peter’s  dome,  124. 

St.  Sophia,  Constantinople,  113,  122,  123,  126,  129  ; Figs.  71,  72. 

Salisbury  Cathedral,  172. 

Samian  pottery  ware,  67. 

Samnites,  art,  16,  29  ; wars,  31. 

San  Apollinare  in  Classe  (Ravenna),  107,  116  ; Figs.  67,  69. 


INDEX. 


249 


San  Apollinare  Nuovo  (Kavenna),  107,  116  ; Figs.  66,  68. 

San  Vitale  (Ravenna),  116,  122  ; Fig.  70. 

Sarcophagi,  Etruscan,  24  ; Roman,  72  ; Christian,  81,  85  ; Figs. 
52,  53,  54. 

School  of  Cologne,  202,  204. 

Sculpture,  Etruscan,  17-23  ; Roman,  44-48,  53,  54,  69-75  ; early 
Christian,  8-5,  86 ; Byzantine,  110-111 ; Romanesque,  142, 
155  ; Gothic,  195-199  ; Italian  Gothic,  234-241. 

Segovia,  aqueduct,  52  ; Fig.  20. 

Seville,  the  Alcazar,  131  (Fig.  77)  ; the  Giralda,  131. 

Sicily,  a seat  of  Arab  art,  132. 

Siena  Cathedral,  210  ; pulpit  by  Nicolo  Pisano,  235. 

Slade  collection  (glass),  67. 

Spalatro,  55,  119. 

Speyer  Cathedral,  141  ; Fig.  85. 

Spires,  origin,  121  ; Gothic,  190,  212. 

Stained  glass,  200,  201,  216. 

Steeples,  origin,  121. 

Stonehenge,  112  (frontispiece). 

Strassburg  Cathedral,  198. 

Temples,  Roman,  49-51 ; Maison  Carrie,  49  (Fig.  25)  ; Fortuna 
Virilis,  49  (Fig.  26) ; Antoninus  and  Faustina,  49  (Fig. 
27)  ; Assisi,  50  (Fig.  28)  ; Pola,  50  ; Tivoli,  50 ; Vesta,  50 ; 
Olympian  Jupiter,  50  ; Baalbek,  50  ; Jerash,  50. 

Tiles,  Arab,  133. 

Transei^ts,  Romanesque,  151  ; Gothic,  190. 

Triforium,  190. 

Triptychs,  111,  198  ; Fig.  113. 

Triumphal  Arches,  56  ; Fig.  33. 

Triumph  of  Death,  Pisan  fresco,  233. 

Tudor  arch,  188. 

Tuscan  Order,  24,  51  ; Fig.  12. 

Utensils,  Roman,  65. 

Vaulting,  Romanesque,  117,  143, 147,  148  ; Gothic,  170-174,  180- 
Van  der  Weyden,  Roger,  203-205  ; Fig.  117. 

Van  Eycks,  the,  202-205  ; Fig.  114. 

Venice,  palaces,  208,  239  (Figs.  147,  148) ; Palace  of  the  Doge, 
239  (Fig.  149)  ; see  also  St.  Mark’s. 

Verona,  amphitheatre,  56. 


250 


INDEX. 


Volterra,  Etruscan  gateway,  Fig.  27 ; Town  Hall,  238 ; Fig. 
146. 

Wechselburg,  sculpture,  142. 

Weights,  Roman,  65  ; Fig.  42. 

Wells  Cathedral,  198  ; Fig.  95. 

Westminster  Abbey,  186. 

Windows,  Gothic,  177,  178,  201. 

Worms  Cathedral,  141  ; Fig.  84. 

York  Cathedral,  172. 


DUKE  UNIVERSITY 
LIBRARY 


DURHAM,  NORTH  CAROLINA 
27706 


